Water Conservation

Introduction

Why Water Conservation Has Become a Global Emergency

Water is renewable, but usable freshwater is limited. What has changed in recent decades is population concentration in cities.

A report by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) warns us that:

• By 2050, nearly 51% of the global population will live in cities (up from 17% in 2020).
• Around 100 cities worldwide, including 30 Indian cities, are at risk of severe water scarcity.

Cities under threat include:

• Global cities: Beijing, Jakarta, Johannesburg, Istanbul, Hong Kong, Mecca, Rio de Janeiro
• Indian cities: Jaipur (highest risk), Indore, Thane, Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi

👉 Key Insight (UPSC-ready):
Urbanisation without proportional expansion in water infrastructure converts a hydrological problem into a developmental crisis.

Clearing the Conceptual Confusion

Water Scarcity vs Water Stress vs Water Risk

These three terms are often used interchangeably—but UPSC expects precision.

Water Scarcity – “Is water physically available?”

• Refers to the absolute lack of sufficient water supply.
• It is objective and measurable.
• Caused mainly by:
  • Low rainfall
  • Over-extraction of groundwater
  • Climatic factors

🧠 Important point:
Water scarcity is only one component of a larger problem called water stress.

Water Stress – “Can water needs actually be met?”

• Refers to the inability to meet human and ecological water demand.
• Can exist even when water is present.

Water stress arises due to:

• Water scarcity, OR
• Poor water quality, pollution, salinity, or inaccessibility

📌 Example:

• A region may have plenty of water, but if it is industrially polluted, it is water-stressed, not water-secure.

👉 Why water stress is broader than scarcity:

It includes:

• Quantity (availability)
• Quality (pollution, salinity)
• Environmental flows
• Accessibility

Water Risk – “What is the likelihood of water-related damage?”

• Refers to the probability of suffering negative water-related impacts.
• It is context-specific:
  • Varies across sectors (cities, agriculture, industries)
  • Depends on governance and management

📌 Example:

• Bengaluru faces high water risk not because of low rainfall alone, but due to:
  • Encroachment of lakes
  • Groundwater over-extraction
  • Poor urban planning

🧠 Key takeaway:
Water risk is not about water alone—it is about management failure.

Spatial Distribution in India

🟤 Water-Scarce Regions (Physical scarcity)

• Rajasthan
• Gujarat
• Rain-shadow regions of Western Ghats: Hyderabad-Karnataka, Vidarbha
• Other drought-prone regions

🔴 Water-Stressed Regions (Broader stress factors)

Includes all water-scarce regions plus areas affected by:

✔ Urban & Industrial Pollution

• Ganga–Yamuna industrial belt
• Mining regions: Odisha, Jharkhand
• Metro cities: Mumbai, Bengaluru

✔ Alkalinity & Salinity

• Over-exploited agricultural belts →Punjab, Haryana

✔ Marine Saline Ingress

• Coastal regions impacted by → Cyclones, Storm surges, Sea-level rise

👉 Key conceptual link:
A region may shift from water-scarce → water-stressed → high water risk if governance does not improve.

Why Water Conservation Is the Only Sustainable Solution

Water conservation is not just about saving water—it is about:

• Reducing demand
• Improving efficiency
• Protecting quality
• Ensuring inter-generational equity

India’s Water Situation

India’s Water Paradox: Population vs Resources

India’s water crisis begins with a structural imbalance.

• India supports 16% of the world’s population
• Occupies less than 2.5% of global land area
• Possesses only 4% of global freshwater resources

👉 Core issue:
A high population load on limited water resources automatically converts water into a strategic constraint for development.

River Basins Facing Water Scarcity in India

Water scarcity in India is not uniform forcing UPSC to often ask region-specific questions.

Major water-scarce basins include: Indus, Krishna, Cauvery, Subarnarekha, Pennar, Mahi, Sabarmati, East-flowing rivers, West-flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra, including Luni

🧠 Conceptual clarity:

Scarcity here is driven by a combination of low rainfall, high demand, over-extraction, and climatic variability.

How Much Water Does India Actually Have?

According to Central Water Commission (CWC):

• Total water resources potential (natural river runoff):
  👉 1,999 billion cubic metres (BCM)
• Utilisable water resources:
  👉 1,122 BCM per year, divided into:
  • Surface water: 690 BCM/year
  • Replenishable groundwater: 432 BCM/year

📌 Key exam point:
Not all available water is usable due to topography, temporal flow, and technological constraints.

Per Capita Water Availability: A Declining Trend

Water availability per person is a critical international benchmark.

As per CWC projections:

• 2025 → 1,434 cubic metres/person/year
• 2050 → 1,219 cubic metres/person/year

CWC Classification

Per Capita Availability	Condition
1700–1000 m³/year	Water Stressed
< 1000 m³/year	Water Scarcity
1000–500 m³/year	Chronic Water Scarcity
< 500 m³/year	Absolute Scarcity

Domestic Water Norms

• Absolute minimum: 50 litres/person/day
• Ideal requirement: 100–200 litres/person/day

👉 Inference:
India is rapidly moving from water stress towards chronic scarcity.

India’s Ground water situation

Source: National Compilation on Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India (2025) by Ministry of Jal Shakti

Classification of Groundwater Assessment Units

Assessment units (Blocks / Mandals / Talukas) are classified based on Stage of Groundwater Extraction (ratio of extraction to replenishment):

• Safe (<70%)
• Semi-Critical (70–90%)
• Critical (90–100%)
• Over-Exploited (>100%)
• Saline (brackish/saline groundwater)

These categories guide planning, regulation, and groundwater governance.

Digital Governance: IN-GRES Platform

• CGWB has developed IN-GRES (India Groundwater Resource Estimation System).
• A GIS-based public web platform that:
  • Visualises recharge, extraction, categorisation
  • Enables comparison with past assessments
  • Provides unit-level computation transparency

📌 UPSC Value Addition:
India’s groundwater assessment system is among the most transparent globally.

Hydro-Climatic Controls on Groundwater Recharge

Rainfall

• ~60% of total groundwater recharge comes from rainfall.
• >75% of rainfall occurs during June–September → high temporal variability.

Spatial Rainfall Pattern

• 250 cm: Western Ghats, Sub-Himalayan NE, Meghalaya Hills
• <40 cm: Northern Kashmir, Western Rajasthan
• 75–150 cm: Large parts of North, Central & Eastern India

Geological Controls on Groundwater Availability

• Alluvial aquifers (Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra basin):
  • High specific yield
  • Excellent groundwater storage
• Hard rock / fissured aquifers (≈⅔ of India):
  • Groundwater limited to weathered & fractured zones
  • Low storage → high vulnerability to over-extraction

National Groundwater Status (2025 Assessment)

Key National Figures

• Total annual groundwater recharge: 448.52 BCM
• Annual extractable groundwater resource: 407.75 BCM
• Annual groundwater extraction: 247.22 BCM
• Average stage of extraction (India): 60.63%

Status of Groundwater Assessment Units (2025)

Total units: 6,762

Category	Units	Percentage
Safe	4,946	73.14%
Semi-Critical	758	11.21%
Critical	201	2.97%
Over-Exploited	730	10.80%
Saline	127	1.88%

📌 UPSC Insight:
Despite improvement, ~25% units remain stressed (SC + C + OE).

Spatial Concentration of Stressed Units

States/UTs where >25% units are stressed: Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Delhi, Puducherry

Regional Patterns of Over-Exploitation

Over-exploited units are concentrated in:

1. North-West India (Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, W. UP)
   • High recharge but indiscriminate pumping
2. Western India (Rajasthan, Gujarat)
   • Arid climate → low recharge
3. Peninsular India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, AP)
   • Crystalline aquifers → low storage capacity

Positive Trend Noted

• Regions with: Good rainfall, Artificial recharge, Conservation measures → have shown improvement in groundwater status.

Causes of Groundwater Depletion

✔ Unsustainable Usage

• Excessive pumping
• Extraction > Recharge rate

✔ Monsoon Variability

• Low-intensity rainfall
• Increase in hot and dry monsoon conditions

✔ Agriculture-Driven Demand

• Water-intensive crops
• High cropping intensity

✔ Green Revolution Legacy

• Expansion of rice cultivation in Punjab & Haryana
• These regions have:
  • Light soils
  • High evaporation
  • Unsuitable agro-climatic conditions for rice

✔ Geological Constraints

• Hard rock terrain in central India limits:
  • Groundwater storage
  • Recharge capacity

Measures by the Government for Water Conservation

Constitutional Context: Who Is Responsible for Water?

Water is a State subject under the Constitution of India.
👉 This means States take primary responsibility for water conservation and management.

However, given Inter-state rivers, Groundwater crisis, Climate change, the Central Government plays a supplementary and coordinating role through → Policy frameworks, Institutions, Funding support, National programmes

National Water Policy, 2012: The Philosophical Foundation

The National Water Policy (2012) was formulated by the Department of Water Resources.

Key thrust:

• Rainwater harvesting
• Water conservation
• Efficient and sustainable use of water

🧠 Conceptual importance:
This policy shifts the focus from supply-side engineering to demand-side management.

Institutional Push for Rainwater Harvesting

Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)

The Central Ground Water Authority has issued directions under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 making rainwater harvesting mandatory in all target areas, including Union Territories.

👉 This converts conservation from a choice into an obligation.

Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): Planning Recharge

The Central Ground Water Board prepared the “Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water in India” (2013).

Salient feature:

• Construction of 1.11 crore rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge structures
• Objective:
  👉 Harness surplus monsoon runoff to augment groundwater resources

Urban Focus: Model Building Bye-Laws, 2016

The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs issued Model Building Bye-Laws, 2016.

Key recommendation:

• Rainwater harvesting mandatory for:
  • All buildings
  • Plot size ≥ 100 sq. m

Objective:

• Sustainable groundwater management
• Community participation in water-stressed blocks of:
  • Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, UP

👉 UPSC angle: Urban water conservation is now linked with town planning laws.

Ministry of Jal Shakti: Integrated Water Governance

To overcome fragmented governance, the Government created the Ministry of Jal Shakti by merging:

• Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation
• Ministry of Drinking Water & Sanitation

Significance:

• Integrated management of → Rivers, Groundwater, Drinking water, Sanitation

🧠 This reflects a basin-level, holistic approach to water.

Got it, Samir 👍. Based on the tabular format used in your open page (Agriculture Schemes for UPSC – Food & Rural Economy Insights), here’s the water conservation programmes you shared, presented in the same structured table style:

Major Government Programmes for Water Conservation

S. No	Scheme Name	Launch Year	Ministry / Agency	Objective / Focus
1	Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal)	2019	Ministry of Jal Shakti (CGWB)	Community-led groundwater management in water-stressed areas
2	Jal Shakti Abhiyan	2019	Ministry of Jal Shakti	(Initially) Covers 1,592 water-stressed blocks across 257 districts; focus on rainwater harvesting, reuse, watershed development
3	Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)	2019	Ministry of Jal Shakti	Ensure Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTCs); linked with source sustainability & groundwater recharge
4	Micro Irrigation Fund (NABARD)	2018	NABARD	Promote drip & sprinkler irrigation; reduce groundwater extraction
5	National Perspective Plan (NPP)	1980	Ministry of Jal Shakti / NWDA	Vision of inter-basin water transfer; transfer water from surplus to deficit regions
6	National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM)	2012	Central Ground Water Board	Scientific mapping and management of aquifers for sustainable groundwater use
7	Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)	2019	Ministry of Jal Shakti (Centrally Sponsored Scheme)	Ensure Functional Household Tap Connection (FHTC) to every rural household by 2024 (now extended to 2028)
8	National Hydrology Project (NHP)	2016–17	Ministry of Jal Shakti (Central Sector Scheme, WB-supported)	Improve quality and accessibility of water resources data for planning and governance

Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)

• Apex technical body under the Ministry of Jal Shakti
• Functions:
  • Groundwater assessment
  • Monitoring
  • Technology development
  • Policy implementation support

Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)

• Constituted under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
• Regulatory body

Powers include:

1. Exercising powers under the Environment Protection Act
2. Issuing directions and imposing penalties
3. Regulating groundwater withdrawal
4. Appointment of officers for enforcement

Regulatory Measures by CGWA

• Groundwater withdrawal regulated in:
  • 802 Over-exploited
  • 169 Critical assessment units
• 162 areas notified for strict control
• New groundwater structures prohibited in notified zones

Industries/projects in these areas:

• Must seek prior permission from CGWA
• Referred by SPCBs and MoEFCC

NGT vs CGWA: Judicial Correction

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) struck down CGWA’s 2020 groundwater guidelines, declaring them contrary to law.

NGT’s Key Guidelines:

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) mandatory for groundwater extraction
• No general or blanket permissions, especially for commercial entities
• Time-bound and quantity-specific permissions, not perpetual rights
• Preparation of Water Management Plans for → Over-exploited, Critical, Semi-critical blocks (OCS units)

Why NGT Intervened?

• India extracts 25% of global annual groundwater
• No visible improvement in groundwater levels after 23 years of regulation
• India ranked 120 out of 122 countries in water quality index
• Most states scored:
  • Below 50% in groundwater augmentation
  • Failed to create recharge infrastructure in stressed areas

👉 Inference:
Regulation without accountability had failed.

Central Water Commission (CWC)

The Central Water Commission was established in 1945.

Key functions:

• Technical advisory to States
• Coordination of water conservation schemes
• Support in:
  • Flood management
  • Irrigation
  • Drinking water supply
  • Hydropower generation

🧠 CWC complements CGWB:

• CWC → Surface water
• CGWB → Groundwater

BIS – Drinking Water Standards (IS 10500)

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) prescribes quality standards for drinking water in India under IS 10500 to ensure that water supplied for human consumption is safe, potable, and free from health hazards.

Acceptable vs Permissible Limits

• Acceptable Limit
  → Ideal concentration of a substance in drinking water.
• Permissible Limit
  → Maximum allowable concentration in the absence of an alternate water source.
• NR (No Relaxation)
  → Exceeding this value is not allowed under any circumstances.

📌 All values are in mg/L unless stated otherwise.

BIS Drinking Water Quality Standards (Key Parameters)

Physical & General Parameters

Parameter	Acceptable Limit	Permissible Limit
pH	6.5 – 8.5	NR
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)	500	2000
Total Hardness (as CaCO₃)	200	600

Major Ions & Salts

Parameter	Acceptable	Permissible
Calcium	75	200
Magnesium	30	100
Chloride	250	1000
Sulphide	0.05	NR
Nitrate	45	NR
Fluoride	1.0	1.5

📌 UPSC Note:

• Fluoride above permissible levels → fluorosis
• Nitrate contamination → blue baby syndrome (methemoglobinemia)

Heavy Metals (High Health Risk – Mostly NR)

Parameter	Acceptable	Permissible
Arsenic	0.01	0.05
Lead	0.01	NR
Cadmium	0.003	NR
Mercury	0.001	NR
Nickel	0.02	NR
Selenium	0.01	NR

📌 Exam Insight:
Heavy metals have very low acceptable limits due to bioaccumulation and chronic toxicity.

Other Chemical & Organic Parameters

Parameter	Acceptable	Permissible
Aluminium	0.03	0.2
Ammonia	0.5	NR
Iron	0.3	NR
Copper	0.05	1.5
Phenolic Compounds	0.001	0.002
Chloramines	4.0	NR

IS 17482:2020

• The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has notified IS 17482:2020 – Drinking Water Supply Management System: Requirements for Piped Drinking Water Supply.
• This standard provides a quality management framework for piped drinking water supply services, covering the entire water supply chain—from raw water source to household tap.

Objective

• To ensure that safe, adequate, and reliable drinking water reaches consumers consistently, not just at the treatment plant but at the point of delivery.
• The standard has been developed in alignment with the objectives of the Jal Jeevan Mission, which aims to provide functional household tap connections with safe drinking water.

Scope and Key Provisions of IS 17482:2020

• IS 17482 focuses on the management system of water supply and does not prescribe numerical water quality limits.
• It mandates that treated drinking water supplied through piped systems must conform to IS 10500 (Drinking Water Specification).

District Metering Area (DMA) – Important Concept

• BIS draft recommends adoption of District Metering Areas (DMA) wherever feasible.

What is DMA?

• A hydraulically isolated zone in a water supply network.
• Used to → Measure water inflow, Detect leakages, Reduce non-revenue water
  DMA improves efficiency, accountability, and sustainability of urban and rural water supply systems.

Please Note:

• IS 10500 → “What should be the quality of drinking water?”
• IS 17482:2020 → “How should a piped water supply system be managed so that IS 10500 quality actually reaches households?”
•  

Recommended Conservation Measures

Clean Water Sanctuaries: Protecting the Last Pure Sources

Why do we need clean water sanctuaries?

• Over 70% of India’s surface water and groundwater is polluted.
• As contamination increases, households increasingly rely on Reverse Osmosis (RO) systems.
• RO systems:
  • Waste large quantities of water
  • Increase energy consumption
  • Add to environmental burden

👉 Conclusion: Treating polluted water is not a sustainable solution.
Protecting naturally clean water sources is far more efficient.

Two remaining non-invasive, perennial sources of unpolluted water

(a) Floodplain Aquifers (Bulk Water Source)

• Floodplains of rivers naturally store large quantities of groundwater.
• These aquifers are → Continuously recharged, Naturally filtered, Ideal for bulk water supply

Recommended protection strategy:

• Convert floodplains into:
  • Organic food forests
  • Fruit forests (low water consumption)

❌ Why not artificial lakes?

• Requires massive sand excavation
• Damages wetland ecology
• Increases water loss due to evaporation

👉 UPSC insight: Floodplains are living water systems, not empty land banks.

(b) Forest Aquifers (Drinking Water Source)

• Forested regions host subterranean natural mineral water of the highest international quality.
• Process of natural purification:
  1. Rainwater percolates through humus and leaf litter
  2. Absorbs nutrients
  3. Passes through rock layers
  4. Gains minerals
  5. Collects in underground aquifers

This water:

• Is naturally filtered
• Requires minimal treatment
• Is ideal for drinking

Such aquifers are widespread across → Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats

👉 Key message:
Forests are not just carbon sinks — they are water purification systems.

Sponge City Concept: Rethinking Urban Water Management

What is a Sponge City?

A Sponge City is an urban model where water is:

Conserved + Stored + Recharged + Sustainably used

Instead of behaving like a sealed concrete surface, a sponge city:
→ Absorbs rainwater
→ Filters it naturally
→ Recharges urban aquifers

How does it work?

• Rainwater infiltrates through soil
• Gets naturally filtered
• Reaches urban aquifers
• Can be extracted via:
  • Urban wells
  • Peri-urban wells
• After minimal treatment, used for city supply

👉 This reduces dependence on distant river sources and large dams.

What does a Sponge City need in practice?

A sponge city must replace impermeable infrastructure with permeable urban design, such as:

• Contiguous open green spaces
• Interconnected waterways, ponds, and channels
• Green roofs that:
  • Retain rainwater
  • Filter it naturally
  • Release excess water slowly into the ground

Benefits of a Sponge City

• Replenished groundwater
• Cleaner aquifers due to natural filtration
• Reduced urban flooding
• Lower pressure on:
  • Drainage systems
  • Water treatment plants
• Greener, healthier urban environments
• Enhanced urban biodiversity

👉 UPSC-ready line:
A sponge city transforms cities from water consumers into water managers.

Broader Measures Required for Water Conservation

Regional Rebalancing of Irrigation

• Eastern India has abundant water but underdeveloped irrigation.
• Expanding irrigation here would:
  • Increase agricultural productivity
  • Reduce pressure on groundwater-stressed north-western states

Climate-Sensitive Water Planning

• Water management plans must:
  • Incorporate climate change projections
  • Account for changing rainfall patterns
  • Predict future water availability more accurately

👉 Planning based only on historical data is no longer sufficient.

Revival of Traditional Water Conservation Practices

Modern solutions must be complemented by time-tested indigenous methods, such as:
→ Farm ponds
→ Check dams
→ Gully plugging
→ Dug wells and borewells

Region-specific innovations:

• Artificial glaciers in Ladakh – store winter water for spring use
• Tamaswada pattern nallah treatment (Maharashtra) – decentralized watershed management

👉 These methods are → Low-cost, Locally suited, Community-driven

Regulation: From “Toothless Tiger” to Effective Enforcement

• Existing water regulations suffer from:
  • Weak enforcement
  • Poor monitoring
  • Minimal penalties

What is needed:

• Stricter regulation
• Real penalties for violations
• Accountability mechanisms

Agricultural Water Use: The Biggest Opportunity

Promote Micro-Irrigation → Drip irrigation, Micro-sprinklers

Supported through schemes like:
→ More Drop per Crop
→ Krishi Sinchai Yojana
→ DRIP programme

👉 These techniques:

• Reduce water wastage
• Increase water-use efficiency
• Improve crop productivity

Additional Essential Measures

• Artificial recharge of tube wells
• Reuse of treated wastewater
• Afforestation
• Adoption of scientific farming practices

Scientific Understanding of Aquifers: A Future Imperative

Water conservation must be based on hydrogeological science, including:

• Mapping saline–freshwater interfaces near coasts
• Studying impacts of:
  • Glacier melt on aquifer recharge
  • Changes in the Ganga basin aquifers
• Understanding transboundary aquifer systems, especially in arid and semi-arid regions

👉 Advanced UPSC value addition:
Aquifer governance will be as geopolitically important as river water sharing.