Global Wildlife Conservation and International Efforts

Regulating Trade in Wildlife — Understanding CITES

Let us begin with a simple question: Why does international wildlife trade need regulation?
Because the demand for exotic animals, plants, skins, medicines, pets, timber, etc., often becomes so high that it pushes species toward extinction. To prevent this, the global community created CITES.

What is CITES?

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
— also called the Washington Convention.

Think of CITES as an international “traffic police” for wildlife trade.
Its job is not to ban all wildlife trade, but to ensure trade does not threaten the survival of species.

Key Points

It is a multilateral treaty drafted in 1963 by IUCN members.
It entered into force in 1975.
Today, 185 Parties (including the EU) are members.

Important Clarification

CITES is legally binding, but it does not override national laws.
Rather, it provides a framework, and each country must pass its own domestic legislation to implement CITES.

Conference of Parties (CoP)

The CITES CoP, also known as the World Wildlife Conference, meets every 2–3 years.

Here, members:

review how wildlife trade is functioning,
add or delete species from the Appendices,
tighten or relax trade rules.

Essentially, whatever changes you see in CITES Appendices happen through the CoP.

How Does CITES Function?

CITES regulates trade through a global licensing system.

Whenever an Appendix-listed species is imported or exported, permits are mandatory.

To manage this, each country appoints:

A. Management Authorities

Handle permits and administrative work.

India’s Management Authority:

Director of Wildlife Preservation, MoEFCC
Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) — issues permits.

B. Scientific Authorities

Advise whether trade will harm the species.

Scientific Authorities in India:

Zoological Survey of India
Botanical Survey of India
Wildlife Institute of India
(and others)

CITES Appendices — Levels of Protection

CITES classifies species into three Appendices, depending on how threatened they are:

Appendix I — Highest Protection

Species threatened with extinction.
Commercial trade is generally prohibited.
Only exceptional trade allowed (e.g., scientific research, captive breeding).

Appendix II — Moderate Protection

Species not yet endangered, but may become so if trade is not regulated.
Trade allowed with permits and controls.

Appendix III — Country-Specific Protection

Species protected by at least one country, which seeks help from other countries to control trade.

How are Appendices updated?

At CoP meetings, Parties submit proposals → discussions → voting → amendments approved or rejected.

Highlights from Major CoP Meetings

Note: For detailed information about each species, please follow the provided hyperlinks.

A. CoP18 — Geneva, 2019

India made several proposals:

India Proposed Moving to Appendix I (Stricter Protection):

India Proposed Removing from Appendix II:

Indian Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) — VU

What was accepted?

Star Tortoise, Smooth-Coated Otter, Asian Small-Clawed Otter → shifted to Appendix I
→ Complete ban on their international commercial trade.

B. CoP19 — Panama, 2022

52 proposals were discussed, dealing with sharks, elephants, turtles, reptiles, etc.

Key Outcomes

Operation Turtshield, India’s turtle-protection effort, was acknowledged.
First World Wildlife Trade Report released
- Showed that most CITES-regulated trade involves
  artificially propagated plants or
  captive-bred animals.
- Only 18% involved wild-sourced species.

India’s Proposals at CoP19

Move to Appendix I:
- Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle (CR)
- Leith’s Softshell Turtle (CR)
Include in Appendix II:
- Jeypore Ground Gecko (EN)
  This proposal was accepted.

All three proposals were accepted.

C. CoP20 — Samarkand, Uzbekistan, 2025

Focused on trade regulation for big cats, timber species, sea cucumbers, and sharks.
Adopted new resolutions shaping the next 3-year agenda.
India did not submit independent species proposals.

Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE)

Let us begin with a basic idea:
Elephants are among the world’s most heavily poached animals — mainly for ivory.
If we want to fight wildlife crime, we must first understand where, how, and why elephants are being killed.

This is exactly what MIKE does.

What is MIKE?

MIKE = Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants

It is an international monitoring system created under a CITES Resolution (1997).
Its primary goal is to track trends in elephant mortality across Africa and Asia.

Think of MIKE as the “data intelligence network” for elephant conservation.

Why is MIKE important?

Because global decisions on:

ivory trade,
elephant protection measures,
enforcement strategies
all depend on accurate, scientific data.

Objectives of MIKE

A. Track elephant mortality trends

Is poaching rising or falling?
Which regions are high-risk?

B. Identify causes of elephant deaths

Natural causes? Conflict? Poaching?

C. Build capacity in elephant-range countries

Many countries lack staff, training, or technology.
MIKE helps strengthen monitoring systems and enforcement skills.

D. Support decision-making at CITES

Every year, MIKE’s findings are presented at CITES meetings, influencing policies on ivory trade and elephant conservation.

MIKE Sites in Asia

Across Asia, MIKE operates in 28 sites, spread over 13 countries.

India has the highest number: 10 MIKE sites.

Other Asian countries have:

2 sites each → Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand
1 site each → Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Vietnam

This wide network helps compare trends across regions.

Implementation by IUCN (from 2017)

Since 2017, IUCN has been implementing the MIKE programme in Asia, divided into two subregions:

South Asia	Southeast Asia
India	Cambodia
Nepal	China
Bhutan	Indonesia
Bangladesh	Lao PDR
Sri Lanka	Malaysia
	Myanmar
	Thailand
	Vietnam

Funding of MIKE

MIKE does not have its own permanent budget.

It is fully dependent on donor support.
The European Union (EU) has been the largest donor:

supporting the Africa programme since 2001,
and Asia since 2017.

This is important for prelims.

The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC)

Now let us look at TRAFFIC, because students often confuse CITES (a treaty) with TRAFFIC (an NGO).

What is TRAFFIC?

TRAFFIC is an international NGO, founded in 1976, as a joint programme of:

WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature), and
IUCN.

Headquarters → Cambridge, UK

Where CITES creates rules, TRAFFIC monitors and investigates wildlife trade on the ground.

Role and Mission of TRAFFIC

It studies illegal and legal wildlife trade trends,
identifies key trafficking routes,
analyses impacts on species,
provides data and insights to governments and conservation bodies.

Its mission:
Ensure that wildlife trade does not become a threat to nature.

In simple terms:
CITES makes the laws; TRAFFIC studies the market.

Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT)

Next, we look at CAWT, a more political and diplomatic initiative.

What is CAWT?

Founded in 2005, CAWT is a US-led international coalition that brings governments and NGOs together to fight wildlife trafficking.

India is a member.

CAWT works through:

information sharing,
capacity building,
coordinated enforcement campaigns.

Founding Partners of CAWT

Some of its initial partners include:

Conservation International
Save the Tiger Fund
Smithsonian Institution
TRAFFIC International

These partners contribute scientific knowledge, funding, and investigative support.

Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)

As the famous line from the film Refugee puts it — ‘Panchhi, nadiyan, pawan ke jhonke… koi sarhad na inhe roke’ — the natural world does not recognise human boundaries.

Migratory species move freely across continents, and their survival depends on cooperation beyond political borders.
This foundational idea lies at the heart of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS).

A bird may breed in one country, spend the winter in another, and travel through several more on the way.
So, unless countries cooperate, conservation becomes impossible.

CMS was created precisely for this purpose.

What is CMS?

CMS = Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

Adopted in 1979 in Bonn, Germany
Came into force in 1983
Negotiated under the UN Environment Programme (UNEP)

CMS is also called:

Bonn Convention
Global Wildlife Conference

Why is CMS special?

It is the only global UN-based treaty exclusively dedicated to the conservation of:

terrestrial migratory animals
aquatic migratory animals
avian (bird) migrants
throughout their entire migratory range

In simple words:
CMS protects animals that must cross borders to survive.

CMS Appendices

CMS also uses a two-tier protection system, but it is different from CITES.

Appendix I — Strict Protection

Species threatened with extinction.

Parties must:

provide strict protection,
conserve habitats,
remove barriers to migration.

Appendix II — Cooperation Needed

Species that are not necessarily endangered, but whose conservation requires international cooperation (e.g., coordinated agreements, action plans).

CoP13 — India’s Role

Hosted in:

Gandhinagar, Gujarat (2020)

Why important?

India became the President of CMS CoP for 3 years.

Key Outcomes of CoP13

A. Ten new species added to CMS Appendices

Out of these, 7 were added to Appendix I — the highest protection.

Major species added to Appendix I at CoP13

This is important because these species face sharp declines due to habitat fragmentation, power lines, and poaching pressures.

Gandhinagar Declaration (CoP13)

One of the landmark decisions.

It called for:

integrating ecological connectivity
(i.e., uninterrupted movement corridors)
into the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework.

In essence:
Conservation planning must ensure that migratory species can move safely across landscapes.

CMS CoP-14 (2024)

CMS now has 133 Parties.
CoP-14 was held in Samarkand, Uzbekistan (12–17 Feb 2024) under theme: “Nature knows no borders.”
Parties adopted 14 new listing proposals — adding new migratory species under protection.
A “Samarkand Strategic Plan for Migratory Species 2024–2032” was adopted. Key targets:
- Maintain and restore habitats and migration corridors.
- Significantly reduce direct mortality of migratory species caused by human-made infrastructure by 2032.
For the first time, CMS released the “State of the World’s Migratory Species” report — highlighting global trends (declines in many species, high extinction risk for fish, etc.) to help guide conservation priorities.

Central Asian Mammals Initiative (CAMI)

CMS runs various regional programmes; CAMI is one of the most important for India because many Central Asian species enter or pass near Indian landscapes.

Objective

Conserve 15 major migratory mammal species and their habitats across Central Asia.

Timeframe

CAMI workplan approved for 2021–2026.

It may receive funding support from the IUCN Save Our Species – Central Asia initiative.

Major Species Covered Under CAMI

Here is a simple, India-focused list with locations (where applicable):

1. Wild Yak (VU)

Found in Aksai Chin (Ladakh region)

2. Snow Leopard (VU)

Himalayas (India: Ladakh, Himachal, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal)

3. Asiatic Wild Ass / Khulan (NT)

Rann of Kutch (though Khulan historically ranged here; the current Indian wild ass is Indian Wild Ass of LR/LC category — the ‘Khulan’ refers mainly to Mongolian populations)

4. Cheetah (VU) / Asiatic Cheetah (CR)

Historically native to India
Now critically endangered in Iran
Reintroduced in Kuno National Park (MP) (African cheetahs, not Asiatic)

5. Saiga Antelope (CR)

Not found in India
Native to Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Russia
Known for its iconic bulbous nose

6. Wild / Bactrian Camel (CR)

Not found in India
Native to Mongolia & China

7. Argali / Mountain Sheep (NT)

Found in the Trans-Himalayan zones (Ladakh)

8. Kiang / Tibetan Wild Ass (LC)

Common in the Tibetan Plateau and Indian regions of Ladakh

9. Chiru / Tibetan Antelope (NT)

Found in Ladakh
Poached for Shahtoosh wool

10. Tibetan Gazelle (NT)

High-elevation grasslands of Tibet & Ladakh

11. Chinkara / Indian Gazelle (LC)

Western & Central India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP)

12. Leopard (VU)

Widely distributed in India
Mostly below 2,500 m elevation

(Note: The full CAMI list includes 15 species; only major UPSC-relevant ones are highlighted here.)

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

Let us begin with a simple question:
When the world wants to know how threatened a species is, who gives the final authoritative answer?

The answer is: IUCN.

What is IUCN?

IUCN = International Union for Conservation of Nature

A global NGO, not a treaty or government body
Headquarters → Gland, Switzerland
Established to work on:
- nature conservation,
- sustainable use of natural resources,
- scientific research,
- advocacy, policy guidance,
- on-ground field projects,
- public education.

Why is IUCN important?

Because it produces the IUCN Red List, the world’s most trusted assessment of species’ risk of extinction.
No conservation document is referenced more frequently than the Red List.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

The IUCN Red List, also called:

Red Data List, or
Red Book

was founded in 1964.

What does it do?

It provides the most comprehensive global database on:

which species are thriving,
which are declining, and
which are on the brink of extinction.

Important UPSC Concept: “Threatened Species”

IUCN uses “threatened” as a combined term for:

Critically Endangered (CR)
Endangered (EN)
Vulnerable (VU)

So whenever you read “threatened species,” it refers to all three categories together.

Special Pages in the Red Data Book

Pink Pages → Critically Endangered species
Green Pages → Species earlier endangered but now recovered (no longer threatened)

A symbolic point:
Pink pages keep increasing faster than green pages, reflecting growing global conservation concerns.

Criteria for Critically Endangered (CR)

The IUCN uses quantitative scientific criteria. Some important ones are:

1. Population Reduction ≥ 90% (in last 10 years or 3 generations)

This indicates a species on the edge.

2. Very Small Population (< 50 mature individuals)

This rule isn’t applied rigidly — some CR species may have slightly larger populations, but still meet other risk criteria.

3. High Probability of Extinction

The chance of a species going extinct ≥ 50% within 10 years (or 3 generations).

These numerical thresholds help keep assessments objective and globally comparable.

BirdLife International (BI)

Let’s move to another important body linked to IUCN, specifically for birds.

BirdLife International is the world’s largest partnership of conservation organisations, with:

120+ national NGOs as members
A strong, research-oriented global network

Mission

To conserve:

birds,
their habitats, and
broader biodiversity,
while promoting sustainable use of natural resources.

BirdLife International’s Role in the Red List

BirdLife International is the official Red List Authority for birds.
That means:
It provides all scientific assessments for bird species to IUCN.

If a bird is classified as CR/EN/VU, BirdLife’s data is the backbone of that decision.

Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs)

BirdLife identifies special sites called IBAs.

What are IBAs?

Locations that:

have significant populations of threatened bird species, or
host large numbers of migratory birds, or
hold unique bird assemblages.

Global and Indian Numbers

13,000+ IBAs worldwide
554 IBAs in India

Key Indian Partner

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
→ Indian partner of BirdLife International
→ Plays major role in identifying IBAs in India

International Efforts Towards Tiger and Snow Leopard Conservation

Let us begin with a foundational idea:
Tigers and Snow Leopards are apex predators. When they disappear, entire ecosystems collapse.
Because their ranges cross multiple countries, conservation requires international alliances, shared commitments, and coordinated action.

This section covers exactly those global collaborations.

Global Tiger Initiative (GTI)

What is GTI?

Launched in 2008, the Global Tiger Initiative is a worldwide coalition of:
→ governments,
→ NGOs,
→ conservation scientists,
→ civil society institutions.

Its foundational aim:
Prevent wild tigers from going extinct.

Expansion to Snow Leopards

In 2013, the GTI expanded its mandate to include Snow Leopards (VU), recognising the similar threats they face.

Founding Partners of GTI

GTI was supported by some of the world’s strongest conservation institutions:

World Bank – major funding and policy leadership
GEF (Global Environment Facility) – funding support
Smithsonian Institution – scientific research
Save the Tiger Fund – supported Asian tiger conservation (1995–2011)
International Tiger Coalition – network of 40+ NGOs

Tiger Range Countries (TRCs) — Leadership of GTI

GTI is led by 13 tiger range countries:
Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, Vietnam.

India is one of the most important TRCs due to its largest wild tiger population globally.

Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Program (GSLEP)

When GTI expanded to include Snow Leopards in 2013, member countries adopted the Bishkek Declaration.

Objective of Bishkek Declaration

Identify and secure:

“20 Snow Leopard Landscapes by 2020”

— a goal shortened to “Secure 20 by 2020”.

GSLEP Member Countries

Kyrgyzstan (host of the declaration)
Afghanistan
Kazakhstan
Mongolia
Pakistan
The 13 Tiger Range Countries (as Snow Leopards live across many Asian mountain systems)

Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India

For a long time, India did not have a national snow leopard population estimation protocol.

This changed with:
Population Assessment of the World’s Snow Leopard (PAWS)
under GSLEP.

India launched Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI)—the first national-level initiative to systematically count snow leopards.

This marks a crucial step for planning protection measures in the Himalayas and Trans-Himalayan landscapes.

St. Petersburg Declaration (2010)

In 2010, leaders of Tiger Range Countries met at St. Petersburg, Russia, for the International Tiger Forum.

They adopted:

St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation

Goal:

Double global wild tiger numbers by 2022 — known as TX2.

Baseline (2010): ~ 3,200 tigers
Target (2022): 7,000 tigers

Successes

India: from 1706 (2010) → 2226 (2015)
Nepal & Russia also reported significant recovery.

Failures

Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam) saw severe declines.
According to WWF, global count is still only ~3,900 tigers in the wild.

International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC)

Given the scale of illegal wildlife trade (tigers, snow leopards, pangolins, ivory, rhino horn), global enforcement needed stronger coordination.

Established in 2010 (St. Petersburg Tiger Forum)

Objective

Strengthen criminal justice systems at national, regional, and international levels to fight wildlife crime.

Partner Agencies

CITES Secretariat
INTERPOL
UNODC (UN Office on Drugs and Crime)
World Bank
World Customs Organization (WCO)

Together, these agencies form the most powerful international enforcement alliance for wildlife protection.

TX2 & Associated Awards

Remember: TX2 = Tiger × 2 = double tiger population by 2022

A global commitment made under the St. Petersburg Declaration (2010) to:
→ Double the global wild tiger population by 2022

Baseline (2010): ≈ 3,200 tigers
Global Estimate (2023): ~5,574 tigers

To encourage and reward excellence:

A. TX2 Award

Given to one site that achieves a remarkable increase in tiger numbers since 2010.

Winner (2020):

Pilibhit Tiger Reserve (Uttar Pradesh, India)
→ First-ever TX2 Award winner.

Winner (2021)

Bardia National Park (Nepal)
→ Tiger population increased nearly fivefold.
Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve (Tamil Nadu, India)
→ One of India’s fastest-growing tiger populations.

B. Tiger Conservation Excellence Award

Recognises one site excelling in at least two of these five themes:

Tiger & prey population monitoring
Effective site management (CA|TS assessments)
Enhanced law enforcement
Community-based conservation & conflict mitigation
Habitat & prey management

Winner (2020):

Transboundary Manas Conservation Area (India–Bhutan)
→ 500 km² Manas National Park (Assam, India)
→ 1,057 km² Royal Manas National Park (Bhutan)

Winner (2021)

Khata Forest Conservation Area (India–Nepal Transboundary Landscape)
→ Celebrated for community-led conservation & cross-border wildlife movement.

CA|TS — Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards

What is CA|TS?

A globally recognised set of standards to evaluate whether a tiger habitat is being managed effectively.

Launched in 2013
Supported by WWF
Part of the TX2 goal
Helps tiger reserves self-assess and improve conservation practices

India’s Achievement

20+ Tiger Reserves in India have received CA|TS international accreditation.

This is a major global conservation milestone.

Transition from TX2 → GTRP 2.0 (2022–2034)

Why new phase?

2022 deadline passed, tiger numbers rising but uneven
Need for long-term, landscape-level, and connectivity-based conservation

GTRP 2.0 – Global Tiger Recovery Program (2022–2034)

Focus shifts from just numbers to:

Maintaining genetic diversity
Securing habitat corridors
Reducing linear infrastructure impact
Mitigating human–tiger conflict
Strengthening enforcement against poaching
Cross-border cooperation

This is now the global guiding framework for tiger conservation.

Country-Specific Updates

India

Houses ~75% of global wild tigers
Consistent increase from 2006 → 2010 → 2014 → 2018 → 2022 assessments
Leading role in CA|TS accreditation, tiger monitoring technology, and corridor-based landscape management

Nepal

First country to almost triple tiger numbers since 2010
Recognized as global success model under TX2

Russia

Strong recovery of Siberian tigers due to strict anti-poaching laws

SE Asia

Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam: functional extinction
Malaysia: critical decline due to snares & habitat loss
Thailand: showing early signs of recovery due to enforcement

Important Declarations — A Quick Comparison

Declaration	Adopted At	Focus
Gandhinagar Declaration	CMS CoP13	Migratory species & ecological connectivity
Bishkek Declaration	GSLEP, 2013	Secure 20 snow leopard landscapes by 2020
St. Petersburg Declaration	Intl. Tiger Forum, 2010	TX2 — double tiger population by 2022

This table is excellent for prelims.

Project Snow Leopard (India, 2009)

India launched Project Snow Leopard in 2009 to strengthen conservation in high-altitude ecosystems, which remain understudied compared to forests and jungles.

Objectives

Protect high-altitude wildlife
Conserve fragile mountain ecosystems
Balance development and conservation

India’s Snow Leopard Landscapes

Three major landscapes identified:

Hemis–Spiti → Ladakh & Himachal Pradesh
Nanda Devi–Gangotri → Uttarakhand
Khangchendzonga–Tawang → Sikkim & Arunachal Pradesh

These regions contain some of the most sensitive ecosystems on Earth.

Snow Leopard Under International Conventions

CMS (2003)

Snow Leopard was listed as a Concerted Action Species under Appendix I.

CITES (2003)

Scope of the CITES Tiger Enforcement Task Force expanded to include all Asian big cats, including the snow leopard.

Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia)

Habitat & Distribution

Native to the high mountains of northern & central Asia, including:
China, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Russia, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan.
Occupies elevations up to 18,000 ft, mainly above the tree line.
Prefers cold mountainous terrain, rocky landscapes, alpine meadows, and montane grasslands.

Distribution in India

Found in:

Himachal Pradesh
Sikkim
Jammu & Kashmir / Ladakh
Uttarakhand
Arunachal Pradesh

Key Ecological Features

Known as the “Ghost of the Mountains” due to its elusive nature.
Population estimated to be as low as ~4,000, but exact numbers uncertain.
Lives solitarily, except during breeding season.
Crepuscular: Most active at dawn and dusk.
Adapted for high-altitude survival:
- Thick fur and dense undercoat
- Long, thick tail for balance
- Powerful hindlimbs enabling long jumps (up to ~9m)
Coat has unique rosette patterns (individual identification).

Threats

Poaching
Human–wildlife conflict
Habitat fragmentation
Climate change (reducing alpine habitat, shifting treeline upward)

Reproduction

Gestation: ~90–100 days
Litter size: 2–4 cubs

Conservation Status

IUCN Red List: Vulnerable (VU)
CITES: Appendix I
CMS: Appendix I (Concerted Action Species)
Covered under:
- GSLEP (Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Programme)
- Project Snow Leopard (India, 2009)

Cheetah vs Leopard vs Jaguar

Feature	*Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)*	*Leopard (Panthera pardus)*	*Jaguar (Panthera onca)*
Geographic Range	African savannah; small population in Iran	Africa & Southern Asia (including India)	Central & South America
Habitat	Savanna grasslands	Forests, dense bush, rocky terrain	Wet lowlands, tropical forests
Build	Tall, slender, speed-optimized; small head	Robust build; strong body	Stocky, heavily built; strongest bite force among big cats
Tail	Long, striped, white tip	Covered in rosettes	Covered in rosettes
Fur Pattern	Solid black spots	Small rosettes	Large rosettes with central spots
Tear Marks	Present (black lines on face)	Absent	Absent
Speed	Fastest land animal — ~120 km/h	~60 km/h	~80 km/h
Claws	Do not retract fully → better grip for speed	Fully retractile	Fully retractile
Climbing Ability	Poor climber	Excellent climber	Good climber
Behaviour	Diurnal, hunts by sprint	Solitary, nocturnal/crepuscular	Solitary, strong swimmer
IUCN Status	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Near Threatened
CITES	Appendix I	Appendix I	Appendix I
CMS	Appendix I	Appendix II	Appendix I

Quick Identification Tricks

Cheetah → Tear marks + solid spots + fastest + non-retractile claws
Leopard → Small rosettes + Asian & African forests + common in India
Jaguar → Largest rosettes with central spots + found only in Americas + very muscular build

Why Conserve High-Altitude Ecosystems?

High-altitude zones of India (> 3,000 m) include the Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya.

They host some of the world’s most endangered fauna:

Flagship Species

Birdlife

High-altitude lakes & wetlands provide breeding grounds for:

Black-Necked Crane (NT)
Bar-Headed Goose (LC)
and many other migratory bird species.

These ecosystems are fragile, climate-sensitive, and irreplaceable.

World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF)

This is one of the most recognised names in global conservation.

What is WWF?

Established in 1961
Headquarters: Gland, Switzerland
Initially called World Wildlife Fund (still used in some countries)
Today officially known as World Wide Fund for Nature

WWF is an international NGO working on:

wilderness preservation,
reduction of human environmental impact,
sustainable development,
biodiversity conservation.

Mission

To stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and build a future where humans live in harmony with nature.

This guiding philosophy drives all of WWF’s global programmes.

Important Initiatives by WWF

1. TRAFFIC (Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network)

Joint programme of WWF + IUCN
Works against illegal wildlife trade, tracks wildlife trafficking routes, markets, and trends.

2. Living Planet Report

Published every two years since 1998
One of the world’s most authoritative reports on the state of global biodiversity, human ecological footprint, and environmental decline.

3. Global Campaigns

Two well-known initiatives led by WWF are Earth Hour and Debt-for-Nature Swap.

Earth Hour

Earth Hour is a global environmental movement started by WWF in 2007.

What happens during Earth Hour?

People across the world switch off non-essential lights for one hour:

8:30 pm to 9:30 pm
on the last Saturday of March (local time)

This is a symbolic gesture, not an energy-saving exercise — the idea is to inspire people and governments to think about sustainable choices.

Impact

Earth Hour has influenced several environmental policy actions, such as:

establishing a 3.5 million ha marine protected area in Argentina,
banning all plastics in the Galápagos (2014).

Thus, Earth Hour uses collective participation to trigger policy-level outcomes.

Debt-for-Nature Swap

This is an important conservation finance mechanism.

How does it work?

A country’s external debt is:

bought,
renegotiated, or
forgiven

on the condition that the money saved will be invested in environmental conservation.

In simple words:
A country gets relief from foreign debt, and in exchange, it commits to spend that saved money on protecting forests, biodiversity, or climate action.

Countries like Costa Rica, Bolivia, Madagascar, and the Philippines have successfully used such swaps.

International Whaling Commission (IWC)

Whales were historically overhunted to near extinction. To protect them, countries came together to regulate whaling.

What is IWC?

Established under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW)
A non-UN body
Headquarters: United Kingdom

Purpose

Ensure conservation of whale stocks
Ensure sustainable, regulated whaling
Create whale sanctuaries (example: Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary)

Membership

Participation is not limited to whaling nations.
Even countries opposed to whaling — like India — are members.

Key Decisions and Conventions under IWC

1. Moratorium on Commercial Whaling (1982)

IWC adopted a global ban on commercial whaling.
However, the following are still allowed under controlled provisions:

Scientific research whaling
Aboriginal subsistence whaling (native communities dependent on whale meat)

2. Florianópolis Declaration (2018)

In 2018, IWC met in Florianópolis, Brazil.

Japan proposed resuming commercial whaling.
The proposal was rejected.

Outcome

Japan withdrew from the IWC and resumed commercial whaling outside IWC regulations (in its exclusive economic zone).

This declaration emphasised that whales have greater value alive than dead, due to their ecological role and potential for ecotourism.