Solid Wastes

To understand solid waste, imagine everything we throw away—from kitchen leftovers to demolished concrete. If it is solid and discarded, it becomes solid waste.

What Are Solid Wastes?

Solid waste includes:
→ Garbage
→ Construction debris
→ Sludge from treatment plants
→ Other discarded materials

They originate from:
→ Industries
→ Commercial establishments
→ Mining activities
→ Agriculture
→ Households

A major category is Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), which includes everyday items:
paper, plastics, food waste, metals, glass, rubber, textiles, leather, etc.

Sources of Solid Wastes

To understand management, we must understand where waste comes from.

A. Industrial Solid Wastes

Large industries generate huge quantities, but many by-products can actually be reused.

1. Thermal Power Plants → Fly Ash

• Fly ash improves concrete quality and increases road life.

2. Iron & Steel Plants → Blast Furnace Slag

Used in:
→ Portland cement
→ Road and railway construction
→ Soil conditioning

3. Aluminium, Copper, Zinc Industries → Red Mud

Can be used in:
→ Bricks
→ Roofing tiles
→ Lightweight aggregates

4. Sugar Industries → Press Mud

Used as:
→ Soil conditioner
→ Organic fertiliser

5. Pulp & Paper Industry → Lime Mud

Used in:
→ Bricks
→ Cement
→ Wastewater treatment
→ Agriculture

6. Fertiliser Industry → Gypsum

Used to:
→ Treat alkaline soils
→ Make Portland cement
→ Manufacture Plaster of Paris

B. Residential and Commercial Waste

Includes:
→ Food waste
→ Plastics, paper, glass
→ Leather, textiles
→ Tyres, batteries, electronics
→ Wood, cardboard, used oil

This is the most visible form of waste in cities.

C. Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste

Comes from:
→ New construction
→ Road repair
→ Building renovation
→ Demolition

Typical materials: Steel, Concrete, Wood, Plastics, Rubber, Copper wires, Glass, Soil and debris

D. Bio-Medical Waste

Generated by: Hospitals, Clinics, Laboratories and Biomedical equipment industries

Includes: Syringes, Bandages, Gloves, Plastics, Chemicals and Drugs

Handling this waste incorrectly can cause infection and toxic exposure.

Solid Waste Management

Defined as:

• Collecting
• Segregating    
• Treating
• Disposing
• Promoting recycling

Under the 12th Schedule of the 74th Constitutional Amendment (1992), urban local bodies (ULBs) are responsible for keeping cities clean.

But most ULBs face:

• Poor institutional capacity
• Lack of funds
• Inadequate infrastructure
• Weak political commitment

Methods of Waste Disposal

A. Open Dumps

Characteristics:
→ Waste is thrown in open, uncovered areas
→ No segregation
→ No treatment

Problems:
→ Breeding ground for rodents, flies
→ Stinking environment
→ Rainwater runoff contaminates land and water

B. Landfills

A landfill is:
→ A pit dug in the ground
→ Waste dumped and covered daily with soil

After filling, the area can be converted into: Parks and Parking lots

Issue: Leaching

When rainwater passes through waste, it contaminates soil and Groundwater

Garbage generation has increased so much that landfills have become huge mountains (e.g., Ghazipur Landfill, Delhi).

C. Sanitary Landfills

Developed to overcome problems of open dumping and traditional landfills.

Features:

• Built systematically
• Lined with impermeable materials (plastic, clay)
• Prevent leaching
• More hygienic

Limitation: Very expensive to build and maintain.

D. Incineration Plants

Process:

• Waste is burned at high temperatures
• Recyclables are removed beforehand

But:

• Produces toxic ash
• Pollutes air
• Used mainly for infectious biomedical waste

Incineration is considered a last resort.

E. Pyrolysis

A more controlled method than incineration.

Definition:

• Burning organic material in absence of oxygen or under very controlled oxygen.

Products:

• Charcoal
• Tar
• Methyl alcohol
• Acetic acid
• Fuel gas

Materials suitable: Firewood, Coconut/palm waste, Corn cobs, Cashew shells, Rice husk, Paddy straw, Sawdust

F. Plasma Gasification

A very advanced technology.

Process:

• Uses extreme heat and electricity to create plasma
• Converts organic matter → syngas (hydrogen + carbon monoxide)
• Converts inorganic waste → slag

Advantages:

• Cleaner than landfills
• Minimizes toxicity
• Reduces volume of waste drastically

Composting

A natural, biological process.

Microorganisms decompose organic waste (food scraps, leaves) in presence of oxygen, turning them into humus-like compost.

Benefits:

• Rich in carbon & nitrogen
• Improves soil structure
• Increases water retention
• Enhances plant growth

Vermiculture

This is composting with earthworms.

Earthworms:

• Break down waste quickly
• Release nutrient-rich castings
  Result: High-quality organic fertiliser

Biomining for Recycling

Biomining uses Bacteria, Fungi, Plants to extract metals from Ores and Solid wastes

Organisms release enzymes/acids → bioleaching metals such as:
→ Copper
→ Nickel
→ Uranium
→ Gold

This reduces the need for destructive mining practices.

Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Plants

Goal:

• Convert waste → electricity or heat

Process:

1. Segregation of wet and dry waste
2. Wet waste → composting or biomethanation
3. Dry waste → WTE plants

Here, dry waste is converted into Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with calorific value 2,500 kJ/kg.

RDF is a renewable fuel and reduces landfill burden.

Challenges with WTE Plants

1. High Operational Cost

India depends heavily on foreign technology.

2. Nature of Indian Waste

Indian Municipal Solid Waste contains → High moisture (15–20%); High inert content

WTE plants require → <5% moisture; <5% inert material

3. Poor Segregation

Segregation at source is rare → increases treatment cost.

4. Low Calorific Value

Soil/silt reduces fuel quality.

5. High Power Tariff

Electricity from WTE costs ₹7–8/kWh, compared to ₹3–4/kWh from coal.
This makes WTE less attractive to power companies.

Measures to Manage Solid Waste

When we talk of solid waste management, we are essentially answering one question:
How do we prevent the waste we generate from harming society and the environment?

Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2026

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has notified the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2026, replacing the SWM Rules, 2016 framework.

Issued under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, the rules will come into full effect from April 1, 2026.

Current Status of Solid Waste in India

• Waste Volume:
  India generates 1.85 lakh tonnes of municipal waste per day, totalling over 62 million tonnes annually (CPCB).
• Segregation Gap:
  Only 30–35% of waste is scientifically segregated, limiting recycling and composting efficiency.
• Urban Capacity:
  Over 60% of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) lack engineered landfills, Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs), and trained staff, putting pressure on waste infrastructure.
• Legacy Dumps:
  India has 3,000+ unsanitary dumpsites containing around 1 billion tonnes of unmanaged waste, posing serious environmental and health hazards.

Key Provisions of the Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules, 2026

The SWM Rules, 2026 reorient waste governance towards source segregation, circularity, and landfill minimisation.

Digital monitoring and polluter-pays enforcement aim to make compliance measurable and enforceable.

I. Waste Management Measures

1. Source Segregation

• Mandatory segregation at source into four streams → Wet waste, Dry waste, Sanitary waste, Special care waste (domestic hazardous waste)

2. Landfill Limits

• Sanitary landfills restricted to → Non-recyclable waste, Non-energy-recoverable waste, Inert materials

3. Landfill Disincentive

• Landfill fees for unsegregated waste kept higher than the cost of processing segregated waste.

4. Legacy Action

• Mandatory mapping of all legacy dumpsites.
• Time-bound biomining and bioremediation.
• Quarterly progress reporting.

5. Extended Bulk Waste Generator Responsibility (EBWGR)

• Bulk Waste Generators must:
  • Process wet waste on-site, or
  • Obtain an off-site processing certificate.

6. Definition of Bulk Waste Generator

Entities exceeding any of the following → 20,000 sq. m of floor area; 40,000 litres of water usage per day; 100 kg/day of waste generation

7. Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs)

• Formally recognised as:
  • Centres for sorting recyclables
  • Collection points for special waste streams (including e-waste)

8. RDF Mandate

• Industrial units using solid fuel (e.g., cement plants, waste-to-energy units) must replace part of their fuel with Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF).

9. RDF Target

• RDF substitution rate to increase from 5% to 15% over six years.

10. Hotel Responsibility

• Hotels and restaurants in ecologically sensitive zones must process wet waste in a decentralised manner.

II. Monitoring and Enforcement Mechanisms

1. Polluter Pays Principle

• Environmental Compensation (EC) imposed for → False reporting, Operating without registration, Improper waste handling

2. Digital Tracking

• Centralised online portal for → Lifecycle tracking, Facility registration, Mandatory audit reporting

3. Land-Use Planning

• Graded land allocation criteria.
• Buffer zones based on plant processing capacity.
• CPCB to issue buffer-zone guidelines for facilities exceeding 5 tonnes per day capacity.

4. Audit Oversight

• State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) to conduct annual landfill audits.
• Performance oversight by District Collectors.

5. State-Level Committee

• Headed by the Chief Secretary.
• Responsible for enforcement oversight.

6. Tourist Fees

• Local bodies in hilly areas and islands empowered to → Levy user fees on tourists, Regulate visitor inflow

7. Carbon Credits

• Explicit encouragement to generate carbon credits through efficient waste management.

Significance of the SWM Rules, 2026

1. Resource Efficiency

• Four-stream segregation improves waste purity.
• Enhances recycling efficiency.
• Improves compost quality.

2. Circular Economy

• Mandatory RDF use creates a market for non-recyclable waste.
• Reduces dependence on fossil fuels.

3. Institutional Accountability

• Environmental Compensation operationalises the Polluter Pays Principle.

4. Decentralisation

• On-site processing by Bulk Waste Generators reduces transport load.
• Eases pressure on ULB logistics.

5. Digital Governance

• Real-time tracking and mandatory audits reduce data opacity across the waste lifecycle.

Challenges

1. Segregation Deficit

• Only ~30–35% waste scientifically segregated (CPCB).

2. ULB Capacity Gaps

• Over 60% lack engineered landfills, MRFs, and trained staff.
• Waste generation exceeds 1.85 lakh tonnes/day.

3. RDF Market Risks

• Substitution remains ~5%.
• Cement plants cite low calorific value and inconsistent supply.
• Target: 15% by 2032 (PIB).

4. Legacy Waste Scale

• 3,000+ dumpsites (~1 billion tonnes).
• Sites like Ghazipur and Bhalswa continue to miss remediation timelines.

5. Enforcement Asymmetry

• Many SPCBs face 30–40% staff vacancies.
• Uneven Environmental Compensation enforcement across states.

Way Forward

1. Behavioural Nudges

• Differential user fees.
• Swachh Survekshan-style rankings.
• Example: Indore achieving >90% segregation.

2. Strengthening ULBs

• Dedicated funding via SBM-U 2.0.
• PPP-based MRF expansion in fast-growing cities.

3. Digital Vigilance

• Integration of SWM portal with → GIS mapping, Satellite imagery, Third-party audits

4. RDF Standardisation

• National RDF quality norms.
• Long-term price assurance for cement and waste-to-energy sectors.

5. Regulatory Capacity Building

• Filling SPCB vacancies.
• Empowering district enforcement cells.
• Linking grants to compliance performance.

Conclusion

The SWM Rules, 2026 aim to transition India from waste dumping to a circular, resource-efficient economy.

Their success will depend on → Behavioural compliance, Strong local governance, Robust digital oversight, Effective market integration for recyclables

If implemented rigorously, they can significantly reduce landfill dependence and enhance environmental sustainability in urban India.

Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016

An upgrade over the 1998 rules.

Bio-medical waste includes → Human/animal tissues, Blood-soiled materials; Syringes, needles; Laboratory waste; Material generated at hospitals, clinics, labs, immunisation centres

Salient Features

1. Phase-out of chlorinated plastics

Within two years, remove → Chlorinated bags, Gloves, Blood bags

2. Pre-treatment

Laboratory and microbiological waste must be sterilised on-site.

3. Barcoding

All biomedical waste bags/containers must carry barcodes.

4. 4 Categories Instead of 10

Reduces confusion and improves segregation.

5. State Governments’ Role

Provide land for common biomedical waste treatment facilities (CBWTFs).

6. “75 km Rule”

If a CBWTF is available within 75 km, hospitals cannot set up their own treatment facility.

7. Operator responsibilities

Operators must ensure timely collection from healthcare facilities.

8. Camps Included

Vaccination camps, blood donation camps etc., are also covered.

Procedure for Hospitals

Hospitals must:

• Segregate biomedical waste in prescribed categories
• Obtain authorisation if treating 1,000+ patients/month
• Example: Syringes, blood-soaked bandages → Red bag → Incineration

If body fluids are present → mandatory incineration.

Problems Due to Unscientific Disposal

• 85% of hospital waste is non-hazardous, 15% is infectious
• Mixing both makes the entire batch hazardous
• Leads to:
  • Reuse of prohibited items (syringes/drugs)
  • Spread of infection
  • Development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR)

Waste Minimization Circles (WMC)

Objectives:

• Help small and medium industries reduce waste
• Implemented by:
  • World Bank
  • National Productivity Council
  • MoEFCC (nodal ministry)

Linked to the Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution (1992), which emphasises:
→ Public awareness
→ Involvement of citizens & NGOs in environmental monitoring