Solar Energy

Understanding the Core Idea

Solar energy is energy obtained from sunlight. This sunlight can be converted directly into electrical energy using a technology called Photovoltaic (PV) cells, commonly known as solar cells.

How does a solar cell actually work?

Solar cells are primarily made of silicon, a semiconductor material.

1. Sunlight contains photons (tiny packets of energy).
2. When these photons strike the silicon atoms in a solar cell, they knock out electrons.
3. The movement of these freed electrons creates an electric current.
4. This current flows in one direction, hence the electricity produced is Direct Current (DC).

This entire phenomenon is governed by a scientific principle known as the photoelectric effect.

👉 Key takeaway for UPSC:
Solar PV technology converts light energy → electrical energy directly, without combustion, without pollution, and without moving parts, making it a clean and sustainable energy source.

International Solar Alliance (ISA)

Now that we understand what solar energy is, let us move to how the world is cooperating to promote it.

The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is a treaty-based intergovernmental organisation formally known as the International Agency for Solar Policy and Application (IASPA).

Why was ISA created?

The core objective of ISA is:

• Efficient consumption of solar energy
• Reducing dependence on fossil fuels
• Promoting sustainable development, especially in solar-rich but capital-poor countries

Genesis of ISA

• Proposed by India, under the leadership of the Prime Minister, at the India–Africa Summit
• Officially launched by India and France at UNFCCC COP21 (Paris, 2015) through the Paris Declaration
• Headquarters: Gurugram, India

👉 This gives India a norm-setting and leadership role in global solar governance—an important point for GS answers.

Membership Structure of ISA

• Initially conceptualised as an alliance of 123 “sunshine countries”
• These are countries lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
• Countries outside the Tropics can join, but without voting rights
• As of February 2023, 92 countries have signed and ratified the ISA Framework Agreement

👉 Analytical insight:
ISA follows the principle of equity and common but differentiated responsibility, focusing on regions with maximum solar potential but minimum financial capacity.

Functional Approach of ISA

ISA does not duplicate existing institutions. Instead, it:

• Builds networks
• Develops synergies
• Supplements ongoing global efforts in solar energy

To achieve this, ISA collaborates with major international bodies such as:

• International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
• International Energy Agency (IEA)
• Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP)
• Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21)
• UN bodies, MDBs, DFIs, and bilateral agencies

Objectives of the International Solar Alliance

ISA’s objectives are ambitious but clearly structured:

• Mobilise USD 1 trillion investment in solar energy by 2030
• Promote solar finance, solar technologies, R&D, and capacity building
• Reduce cost of finance, especially for developing countries
• Scale-up solar applications across member states
• Facilitate collaborative R&D
• Promote a common cyber platform for cooperation

🔑 Very important UPSC point:
ISA aims to create a World Solar Bank with an authorised capital of USD 15 billion to fund solar projects globally.

ISA Target

• 1000 GW of solar energy capacity by 2030

This target aligns with:

• Global climate commitments
• Energy transition goals
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Delhi Solar Agenda

The Delhi Solar Agenda, adopted during the Founding Conference of ISA, states that
→ Member countries shall increase the share of solar energy in their national energy mix

👉 This is a policy-direction document, not a legally binding instrument, but it carries strong political commitment.

Solar Facility by ISA – A Financial Innovation

One of the most practical interventions by ISA is the Solar Facility, approved in its 5th General Assembly.

What is the Solar Facility?

It is a payment guarantee mechanism designed to:
→ Attract private investment
→ Reduce risk in underserved markets, especially in Africa

Key Components

1. Solar Payment Guarantee Fund
2. Solar Insurance Fund

Through these mechanisms:

• Projects can purchase payment guarantees
• Investors receive risk protection
• Private capital is encouraged to flow into high-risk, high-need regions

👉 UPSC-ready conclusion:
ISA is not just a diplomatic initiative—it is a financial, technological, and institutional platform aimed at making solar energy affordable, accessible, and scalable, especially for the Global South.

One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG)

What is OSOWOG?

One Sun One World One Grid (OSOWOG) is India’s visionary initiative to create a globally interconnected renewable energy ecosystem, primarily based on solar energy.

The central idea is very simple yet powerful:

The sun never sets on the entire planet at the same time—so why should clean energy remain local?

Core Concept

• OSOWOG aims to tap global solar energy potential and share it across borders
• This requires an international electricity grid enabling free flow of power between countries
• When one region experiences night or low solar generation, it can import power from a region where the sun is shining

Technical and Institutional Support

• The blueprint of OSOWOG is being developed with technical assistance from the World Bank
• This support is aligned with accelerating grid-connected rooftop solar deployment

Key Requirements for OSOWOG

To operationalise such a massive global grid, two critical regulatory areas need reform:

1. Grid Security
   • Protection of the Indian grid from cyber threats, instability, and external shocks
2. Energy Exchange Mechanisms
   • Development of cross-border electricity markets
   • Transparent pricing and settlement systems

Why Smart Grids are Essential

OSOWOG mandates the use of smart grids, because:

• Solar power transmission involves high variability
• Transmission losses increase over long distances
• Smart grids optimise:
  • Load balancing
  • Demand-response
  • Real-time monitoring

Phased Implementation of OSOWOG

OSOWOG is planned in three clearly defined phases:

1. Phase I: Interconnectivity within Asia
2. Phase II: Expansion to Africa
3. Phase III: Full global integration

👉 This phased approach ensures technical feasibility, financial sustainability, and geopolitical coordination.

Strategic Dimension

OSOWOG is widely seen as India’s strategic counter to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)—but in the energy domain, focusing on sustainability instead of infrastructure debt.

Steps Taken by India to Increase the Share of Solar Energy

India’s domestic actions give credibility to its global leadership claims.

India’s Global Standing

• India is 4th globally in renewable installed capacity
• India is 3rd globally in solar installed capacity & solar electricity generation

Solar Potential

• As assessed by the National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE):
  • ~748 GW solar potential
  • Assumption: only 3% of wasteland covered with Solar PV modules

Solar Energy in India’s Climate Policy Framework

Solar energy occupies a central position in India’s climate strategy:

• Integrated into the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
• Anchored by the National Solar Mission

National Solar Mission

• Objective: establish India as a global leader in solar energy
• Target: 100 GW of grid-connected solar power by 2022 (achieved now)

PM-KUSUM Scheme

What is PM-KUSUM?

PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan) was launched in 2019 by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

Primary Objectives

• Replace diesel-based irrigation with solar energy
• Reduce dependence on grid power
• Enhance farmer income and energy security

Three Components of PM-KUSUM

1. 10 GW – Decentralised ground-mounted grid-connected renewable plants
2. 17.5 lakh – Standalone off-grid solar pumps
3. 10 lakh – Solarisation of grid-connected pumps

👉 Combined target: 25.75 GW solar capacity

• Central financial support: ₹34,422 crore

Union Budget 2020 – Revised Targets

• Standalone solar pumps increased to 20 lakh
• Grid-connected solar pumps increased to 15 lakh
• Farmers allowed to install grid-connected solar plants on barren land

Expected Benefits of PM-KUSUM

✔ Reduces dependence on diesel and kerosene
✔ Enables farmers to sell surplus power to the grid
✔ Generates income from barren land
✔ Reduces discom subsidy burden (~₹50,000 crore)
✔ Contributes to emission reduction

Criticism of PM-KUSUM

This is where analytical balance is crucial for UPSC answers:

❌ May lead to over-exploitation of groundwater
❌ Subsidy burden on discoms may persist as:

• Solar pumps are not mandatorily linked to reduced subsidised power supply
  ❌ Land-based solar plants may favour wealthy farmers due to:
• High initial investment
• Long-term land leasing (up to 25 years)

Rooftop Solar (RTS) Programme

Phase I (2015–2020)

• Target: 4.2 GW
• Achieved: 2.1 GW (only 50%)

Phase II

• Target: 22 GW of rooftop solar PV
• Discoms given a central role to:
  • Simplify procedures
  • Act as a single-point interface for consumers

State Performance (SARAL Index)

• Karnataka – Best performing state
• Telangana, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh – A++
• Jammu & Kashmir – Lowest rank

National Programme on Solar PV Modules (PLI Scheme)

Let us now move from generation of solar power to a far more strategic question—
👉 Who manufactures the solar panels?

Why was this programme needed?

Although India has rapidly expanded its solar power capacity, it remains heavily dependent on imported solar PV cells and modules, especially from East Asia. This creates:

• Supply chain vulnerability
• Trade imbalance
• Strategic dependence in a critical energy sector

To address this, the Union Cabinet approved a Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for integrated solar PV manufacturing.

Key Features

• Financial outlay: ₹4,500 crore
• Manufacturing capacity addition: 10 GW of integrated solar PV modules (from polysilicon to module)

Integrated manufacturing is crucial because it reduces dependence on imported intermediate components and improves quality control.

Expected Benefits of the PLI Scheme

The scheme is not merely about energy—it is about industrial transformation:

✔ 10 GW of integrated solar PV manufacturing capacity
✔ ₹17,200 crore of direct investment
✔ ₹17,500 crore demand over 5 years for Balance of Materials
✔ Employment generation
→ Direct: ~30,000
→ Indirect: ~1,20,000

✔ Import substitution of ~₹17,500 crore every year
✔ Boost to R&D for higher-efficiency solar modules
✔ Strong support to the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative

👉 UPSC-ready insight:
This scheme aligns energy security with manufacturing sovereignty.

National Wind–Solar Hybrid Policy (2018)

Renewable energy has one inherent challenge—variability.
The solution lies in hybridisation.

Policy Background

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) released the Wind–Solar Hybrid Policy in 2018.

What does the policy promote?

• New hybrid projects
• Hybridisation of existing wind or solar projects

Key Provisions

✔ Integration of wind and solar at:
→ AC level
→ DC level

✔ Flexibility in wind–solar capacity share
✔ Tariff-based transparent competitive bidding

Definition of a Hybrid Project

For a project to qualify as hybrid → Rated capacity of one resource must be ≥ 25% of the other

Core Objectives

• Efficient use of land and transmission infrastructure
• Reduced variability of renewable power
• Improved grid stability

👉 Conceptual clarity:
When solar generation drops at night, wind often picks up—hybrid systems smoothen output.

Relaxation of Lease Norms for Wind Power Projects

Earlier Situation

To set up wind projects on forest land, developers had to pay:

• Compensatory Afforestation charges
• Net Present Value (NPV)
• Additional lease rent of ₹30,000 per MW

Recent Change

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has relaxed the mandatory lease rent of ₹30,000 per MW.

Expected Impact

✔ Lower project cost
✔ Higher investment attractiveness
✔ Faster expansion of wind energy

Issues with Solar Power in India

Now comes the analytical core—solar energy is clean, but not impact-free.

1. Manufacturing Dependence

• India is not a major solar panel manufacturer
• Most panels are imported and assembled, increasing costs

2. Atmospheric Pollution

• Aerosols and air pollution:
  • Absorb and scatter sunlight
  • Reduce generation efficiency
  • Increase cleaning frequency and water demand

3. Water Intensity

• Solar parks require 7,000–20,000 litres of water per MW per wash
• Many are located in arid and semi-arid regions
• This creates ecological stress and local conflicts

4. Land Use Conflicts

• Large solar parks:
  • Clear vegetation
  • Cause habitat loss and soil erosion
• Unlike wind projects, co-use with agriculture is limited

Pollution and Solar Waste Concerns

Hazardous Materials in Manufacturing

Solar panel manufacturing uses → Hydrofluoric acid, Sulfuric acid, Hydrogen fluoride

Composition of Solar Panels

• ~80%: Glass and aluminium (non-hazardous)
• Hazardous components include → Polymers, Antimony-containing glass, Lead, mercury, cadmium, zinc (carcinogenic)

Recycling Challenges

• PV module recycling is not commercially viable in India
• Polymer layers are difficult to recycle → incineration (air pollution)
• Damaged panels often:
  • Buried → soil and groundwater contamination
  • Burnt → air pollution

Missed Opportunity: Solar Waste Recycling

India currently lacks:

• A robust end-of-life solar waste management framework
• Advanced recycling facilities to recover:
  • Silver
  • Solar-grade silicon

👉 Critical insight:
Solar waste recycling offers environmental as well as economic benefits, but institutional capacity is missing.

Case Study: Karnataka’s Pavagada Solar Park

Basic Facts

• Location: Tumakuru district, Karnataka
• Area: 13,000 acres
• One of the world’s largest solar parks

Why Pavagada was chosen

• Arid, drought-prone region
• Large tracts of fallow land
• ISA highlighted it as a model for Rajasthan-like regions

Lease Model

• ₹21,000 per acre per year
• 5% escalation every two years
• Lease duration: 28 years

Issues with Pavagada Solar Park

❌ Benefits accrued mainly to large landholders (>25 acres)
❌ Increase in local temperature due to reflection and absorption
❌ Proximity to Jayamangali Blackbuck Reserve
❌ Decline in:
→ Blackbuck and Great Indian Bustard habitat
→ Large mammals (bears, leopards)
→ Birds and pollinators (bees, butterflies)

👉 Environmental lesson:
Even renewable projects can cause biodiversity loss if not ecologically planned.