Hazardous Waste

To understand hazardous waste, remember one principle:

Not all waste is equally harmful, but hazardous waste is dangerous because of its chemical nature.

What Is Hazardous Waste?

A hazardous substance is any material present or released into the environment that can:
→ Harm public health
→ Damage ecosystems

A substance becomes hazardous if it exhibits any ONE of these four characteristics:
📋 Toxicity → poisonous
📋 Ignitability → catches fire
📋 Corrosivity → corrodes metals/skin
📋 Reactivity → explosive or unstable

Thus, any waste containing hazardous substances is called hazardous waste.

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

POPs are among the most dangerous hazardous wastes because they:
✅ Persist in the environment for decades (do not degrade easily)
✅ Bioaccumulate in organisms (stored in body fat)
✅ Biomagnify in food chains (increase in concentration at higher trophic levels)
✅ Travel long distances through air and water

These traits make POPs a global environmental threat.

Common POPs include:

1. Organochlorine Pesticides

• DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
• Endosulfan
• Chlordane
• Endrin
• Heptachlor

2. Fungicide

• Hexachlorobenzene

3. Industrial Chemicals

• PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) → released from burning plastics and electrical equipment; highly heat-resistant, used in transformers and capacitors

4. Dioxins

• Toxic by-products of burning organic matter, especially when plastics are burned.

DDT Case Study

• Once widely used as a pesticide and insecticide.
• Identified as a POP → banned for agriculture in India.
• Still used in India for vector control (mosquitoes) due to malaria control programmes.

This is an example where public health needs conflict with environmental risks.

Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Organochlorides)

These are hydrocarbons where hydrogen is replaced by chlorine.

Examples:

• DDT
• Endosulfan
• Chloroform
• Carbon tetrachloride
• Dichloromethane
• Trichloroethane

Applications

• Used in producing PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
• Used as solvents for cleaning, degreasing, and dry cleaning
• Many are pesticides

Effects of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

• DDT caused eggshell thinning in birds → population decline
• DDT residues persist for decades → still found in Indian homes
• Detected in mammals across the world, especially Arctic marine mammals
• POP traces found in breast milk
  • Lower concentration in mothers because they pass POPs to infants through lactation

This shows how deeply chemicals enter food chains and human biology.

Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs)

These are emerging POPs, different from organochlorines.

Where are they used?

• Water/stain-resistant coatings for:
  • Clothing, carpets, leather, upholstery
• Oil-resistant coatings on food-contact paper
• Electroplating
• Electronic etching

Environmental Impact

• Extremely long life
• Stored in glaciers
• Released into lakes when glaciers melt
• Bioaccumulate in fish → enter human diets → fatal effects

Why Himalayan glaciers are at higher risk?

They are close to South Asia—a region with high POP emissions.

Endosulfan — Detailed Case Study for UPSC

Endosulfan is an organochlorine insecticide (a POP).

Its Uses

• Widely used in agriculture
• Used as wood preservative

Ban on Endosulfan

India’s Context

• India was one of its largest producers and consumers.
• After massive poisoning incidents in Kasargod district, Kerala, the state banned it in 2001.
• In 2011, the Supreme Court banned production, distribution, and use nationwide.
• Ordered ₹500 crore compensation to victims.

Global Context

• Banned under Stockholm Convention.
• India initially sought a 10-year exemption due to pressure from pesticide industries.
• Committed to phase-out by 2017.

Hazardous Effects of Endosulfan

• Highly toxic and strongly bioaccumulative
• Damages genetic and endocrine systems
• Endocrine disruptor
  • Mimics estrogen → reproductive and developmental disorders
• Neurotoxic
  • Destroys nerve cell integrity

This is a classic example of how pesticides can cause multi-generational harm.

Regulation of Persistent Organic Pollutants Rules, 2018

Issued under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.

These Rules prohibit manufacture, trade, use, import, and export of 7 POPs:

1. Chlordecone
2. Hexabromobiphenyl
3. Hexabromodiphenyl ether & Heptabromodiphenyl ether (Commercial octa-BDE)
4. Tetrabromodiphenyl ether & Pentabromodiphenyl ether (Commercial penta-BDE)
5. Pentachlorobenzene
6. Hexabromocyclododecane
7. Hexachlorobutadiene

Ratifying these chemicals allows India to access Global Environment Facility (GEF) funds.

Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAs)

These include PFOS and PFOA—infamous as “forever chemicals” because they do not degrade.

Where are PFAs used?

• Non-stick cookware (Teflon)
• Water-repellent clothing
• Stain-resistant fabrics
• Cosmetics
• Fire-fighting foam
• Paper straws and packaging

(Important UPSC point: Paper straws may contain more PFAs than plastic straws.)

Why PFAs Are Dangerous

• Do not break down → remain in environment & organisms
• Accumulate in blood and tissues
• Cause:
  • Cancer
  • Thyroid disorders
  • Infertility
  • Developmental issues
  • Hormonal interference
  • Increased cholesterol

PFAs represent the next big global challenge after organochlorines.

Regulating Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste is a global problem. Hence, international treaties exist to regulate the production, trade, and disposal of harmful substances.

Three major conventions together form the backbone of global hazardous waste regulation:
✅ Stockholm Convention (POPs)
✅Basel Convention (Hazardous Waste Movement)
✅Rotterdam Convention (Prior Informed Consent)

Let us understand them one by one.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

Year: 2004
Objective: To eliminate or restrict the production and use of POPs.

POPs are dangerous because they:

• Persist for decades
• Bioaccumulate in organisms
• Biomagnify in food chains
• Travel long distances

Important POPs Listed Under Stockholm Convention

Chemical	Past Use
Aldrin	Insecticide
Heptachlor	Termiticide; used in building foundations and cable boxes
Hexachlorobenzene	Chemical solvent and fungicide
Endrin	Agricultural insecticide for crops like cotton, tobacco, grains
PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls)	Electrical insulators in transformers; very toxic, heat-resistant
DDT	Insecticide (used widely in 1940s–50s)

India has banned DDT for agriculture but still uses it for vector control (malaria control), which is permitted under the Convention.

Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste

Year: 1992
Purpose: Regulate transboundary movement of hazardous wastes.

Key Objectives

• Reduce movement of hazardous waste across borders
• Prevent dumping by developed countries in Less Developing Countries.
• Reduce generation of hazardous waste
• Help LDCs manage their waste safely

Membership: 190 parties (US has signed but NOT ratified)

Shortcomings of the Basel Convention: “Toxic Colonialism”

The Convention focuses on regulating, NOT banning, trade of hazardous waste.

Problems:

1. Only requires Prior Informed Consent (PIC)—not a full ban
2. Does NOT prohibit export to any region except Antarctica
3. Does NOT regulate radioactive waste
4. Traders exploit loopholes by labeling waste as “recyclable”
5. Waste ends up in developing countries where shipbreaking, E-waste dismantling, chemical recycling occurs under unsafe conditions.

Example: Shipbreaking Industry

• Alang Ship-Breaking Yard in Gujarat is one of the world’s largest
• Contains asbestos, toxic oils, heavy metals
• Workers often operate without proper safety gear

Basel Ban Amendment (1995 → Effective 2019)

Due to persistent dumping of hazardous waste in developing countries, activists demanded a total ban.

Key Features

• Bans export of hazardous waste from OECD countries to non-OECD countries
• Applies even to waste meant for “recycling”
• Came into force in 2019 when Croatia ratified
• Becomes binding in 97 countries (after 90 days)

Countries Yet to Ratify (important for prelims)

🇺🇸 United States, 🇨🇦 Canada, 🇯🇵 Japan, 🇦🇺 Australia, 🇳🇿 New Zealand, 🇰🇷 South Korea, 🇷🇺 Russia, 🇮🇳 India, 🇧🇷 Brazil, 🇲🇽 Mexico

Because India is a major ship recycling hub, it has hesitated to ratify.

Rotterdam Convention (Prior Informed Consent)

Purpose:
Ensure that countries know (and consent to) the import of hazardous chemicals.

Key Points:

• Promotes information sharing
• Requires exporters to:
  → Label chemicals
  → Provide safety instructions
  → Inform if substance is banned/restricted elsewhere
• Importing nations can choose to:
  → Allow
  → Restrict
  → Prohibit entry

This protects developing nations from accidental import of dangerous chemicals.

Joint COP Meetings of Basel, Rotterdam & Stockholm Conventions (Geneva, 2021)

Theme:
“Clean Planet, Healthy People: Sound Management of Chemicals and Waste.”

Conferences Held:

1. COP-9 to Stockholm Convention
2. COP-14 to Basel Convention
3. COP-9 to Rotterdam Convention

Let’s see the outcomes.

A. COP-9 (Stockholm)

Two chemicals were added to Annex A (elimination list):

1. Dicofol

• Organochlorine pesticide
• Chemically related to DDT
• Used in:
  → Non-stick cookware
  → Food processing equipment
  → Carpets, paper, paints

2. PFOA (Perfluorooctanoic Acid)

• Used to make Teflon
• Stays in human body/environment for long periods
• Toxic to:
  → Liver
  → Immune system
  → Fetal development
• Carcinogenic

B. COP-14 (Basel Convention)

Major Decision:
Plastic waste included in the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure.

This gives developing countries the power to reject dumping of plastic waste.

Key points:

• Even non-signatories like the US cannot ship waste to countries that follow PIC
• India has already banned import of solid plastic waste

C. COP-9 (Rotterdam Convention)

Added new chemicals for prior informed consent:

1. Acetochlor
2. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)
3. Phorate

These chemicals now require importer permission before international trade.

Hong Kong Convention (Ship Recycling), 2009

Developed by:

• International Maritime Organization (IMO)
• International Labour Organization (ILO)
• Parties to Basel Convention

Purpose:

• Ensure safe and environmentally sound ship recycling
• Ships contain hazardous substances like:
  → Asbestos
  → Heavy metals
  → Toxic oils

Also addresses:

• Worker safety
• Pollution from shipbreaking activities

This is directly relevant to India due to Alang Shipyard.

Conclusion

This section teaches you how the world governs hazardous waste.
The three conventions work together as:

• Stockholm → Controls POPs (production & use)
• Basel → Controls hazardous waste movement across borders
• Rotterdam → Controls trade of hazardous chemicals

Regulatory Measures by India

India manages hazardous waste through several laws, rules, and institutional mechanisms.

The major pillars include:

1. Recycling of Ships Act, 2019
2. Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management & Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016
3. Amendments, SOPs, and specific guidelines

Let us understand each:

Recycling of Ships Act, 2019

This Act gives legal backing to India’s ship recycling industry and aligns India with the Hong Kong Convention.

Purpose of the Act

• Ensure Environmentally Sound Recycling (ESR) of ships
• Ensure safety and welfare of workers
• Embed the Shipbreaking Code, 2013 provisions

Definition of Ship Recycling

Ship recycling means:

• Dismantling ships in approved facilities
• Recovering materials for reuse (steel, machinery, etc.)
• Safely handling hazardous wastes (asbestos, oil, heavy metals)

India’s shipyards—especially in Alang (Gujarat)—are world leaders in this activity.

Requirements for Recycling Facilities

• Only authorised facilities can recycle ships
• Must maintain:
  • Emergency preparedness plans
  • Worker safety systems
  • Hazardous waste handling protocols

Requirements for Ships

Ships must:

• Not contain prohibited hazardous materials, unless exempted by the government
• These rules do not apply to:
  1. Warships
  2. Ships below 500 tons internal volume

National Authority

A central authority responsible for monitoring compliance.

Key functions:

• Conduct periodic surveys
• Issue certificates for inventory of hazardous materials
• Approve ship recycling plans
• Grant permission for final dismantling

Key Benefits of the Act

1. More global ships will choose India for recycling
2. Increased business & employment
3. Boost to Indian yards:
   → Alang (Gujarat)
   → Mumbai Port
   → Kolkata Port
   → Azhikkal (Kerala)
4. Up to 10% of India’s secondary steel needs can be met through ship recycling
5. Indian recycling facilities become internationally compliant (HKC standards)

Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2016

Main objective:
Promote recycling, reuse, and reduce generation of hazardous wastes.

Distinguishing Hazardous vs. Other Wastes

Other wastes include:
→ Waste tyres
→ Paper waste
→ Metal scrap
→ Used electronics

These are viewed as resources for recycling, not liabilities.

Standardised Waste Management Hierarchy

The Rules formalised a priority sequence:
🔹Prevention
🔹Minimisation
🔹Reuse
🔹Recycling
🔹Recovery & utilisation (including co-processing)
🔹Safe disposal

This aligns with global best practices.

SOPs for Waste Management

Rules prescribe Standard Operating Procedures for:
→ Infrastructure
→ Handling requirements
→ Worker safety
→ Environmental safeguards

Compliance is monitored by:

• State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)
• Pollution Control Committees (PCCs)

Import/Export Rules for Hazardous Waste

Key Principles:

• Hazardous waste cannot be imported for final disposal.
• It can only be imported for:
  → Recycling
  → Reuse
  → Recovery

Additional Provisions:

• Simplified export/import procedures
• Silk waste exporters exempt from MoEF permission
• Defective electronic components manufactured in India can be imported back without MoEF permission
• Industries exempt under Water/Air Acts are also exempt from requiring separate authorisation under these rules

Wastes Prohibited for Import

The following cannot be imported into India:

• Waste edible fats & oils (animal/vegetable origin)
• Household waste
• Critical care medical equipment
• Tyres meant for direct reuse
• Solid plastic waste including PET bottles
• E-waste scrap
• Chemical wastes (especially solvents)

This prevents India from becoming a global dumping ground.

Duties Assigned to State Governments

States must:

• Allocate industrial areas for waste recycling/preprocessing
• Register workers involved in recycling
• Conduct skill development trainings
• Ensure worker welfare and safety
• Submit annual reports to MoEFCC
• SPCBs must maintain an inventory of:
  • Waste generated
  • Waste recycled
  • Waste recovered & utilised

This creates transparency and accountability.

Treatment, Storage & Disposal Facilities (TSDFs)

2016 Rules provide clear instructions for setting up TSDFs:

• SPCB must approve layout and design
• Ensures scientifically safe disposal of hazardous waste

Packaging, Labelling & Transport

• CPCB prescribes detailed guidelines
• For interstate movement, the sender must obtain No Objection Certificates (NOCs) from SPCBs of:
  → Sending state
  → Receiving state

This prevents illegal or unsafe waste movement.

Amendment of 2019

Purpose:

• To promote “Ease of Doing Business”
• Support “Make in India”
• Simplify procedures
• While still upholding sustainable development principles

This amendment reduced bureaucracy without compromising environmental safeguards.

No Rules for Disposal of Cigarette Butts

Why the problem exists:

• Cigarette filters are made of cellulose acetate (95%) + rayon
• They are non-biodegradable
• No toxicity data exists for cellulose acetate

Issue:

• MoEF stated: cigarette butts not hazardous
• Health Ministry stated: cigarette butts not biodegradable

Due to this contradiction, NGT directed CPCB to prepare guidelines for disposal of cigarette and beedi butts.

Steel Scrap Recycling Policy

To understand India’s Steel Scrap Recycling Policy, begin with one idea:

👉 Steel is the perfect example of a circular economy material
because it can be reused and recycled infinitely without losing strength or quality.

Thus, steel scrap becomes a valuable raw material—not waste.

National Steel Policy (NSP), 2017

Targets:

• Develop a globally competitive Indian steel industry
• Achieve 300 million tonnes (mt) steel production by 2030
• 35–40% of production should come from the EAF route, i.e., scrap-based production

Thus, scrap availability becomes a strategic requirement.

Even primary steel makers (BOF route) use scrap—up to 15%—to:
→ Improve efficiency
→ Reduce production costs

Therefore, quality scrap is required for both primary and secondary sectors.

Why Is a Scrap Policy Needed?

Because:

• Domestic scrap supply is insufficient
• Imported scrap increases costs
• Unorganised scrap markets pose environmental & safety risks
• India needs a stable scrap ecosystem to meet NSP 2017 targets

Hence the Ministry of Steel created this policy to guide the sector.

Key Features of National Steel Scrap Recycling Policy

A. Establishment of Metal Scrapping Centres

Policy provides a framework for scientific processing of ferrous scrap.

These include:
→ Collection centres
→ Dismantling centres
→ Scrap processing centres

Government acts as an enabler, not operator.

B. Responsibilities Defined Clearly

• Responsibilities assigned to aggregators, manufacturers, owners
• State/UT agencies approve & monitor centres
• No additional compliance burden for entrepreneurs

C. Standard Guidelines Provided

Guidelines for:
→ Collection
→ Dismantling
→ Shredding

All done in:
→ Organised manner→ Safe and environmentally sound manner

Categories of Scrap

Understanding this classification is crucial.

1. Home Scrap

Generated within steel plants during manufacturing processes.

2. New Scrap (Industrial Scrap)

Generated during:
→ Fabrication
→ Auto component manufacturing
→ Machinery building
→ White goods manufacturing
→ Tool making

3. Old Scrap (Obsolete Scrap)

Generated when steel products reach the end of life:
→ Vehicles
→ Appliances
→ Machinery
→ Buildings, bridges
→ Ships
→ Rail coaches & wagons
→ Steel cans

This is the largest and most valuable category globally.

Objectives of the Steel Scrap Policy

1. Promote scientific collection, dismantling, processing of end-of-life products
2. Conserve resources & energy
3. Ensure environmentally-sound management of ferrous scrap
4. Handle waste & residues from scrap processing as per Hazardous Waste Rules, 2016
5. Promote the 6Rs:
   → Reduce
   → Reuse
   → Recycle
   → Recover
   → Redesign
   → Remanufacture

Advantages of the Policy

Recycling 1 tonne of scrap helps save:

• 1.1 tonnes of iron ore
• 630 kg of coking coal
• 55 kg of limestone
• Water consumption reduces significantly
• GHG emissions reduce by 58%
• Energy consumption reduces by 40%

This shows massive economic AND environmental benefits.

Global Trend

Countries worldwide are shifting towards scrap-based steel production because:
➡️It conserves natural resources
➡️Reduces carbon footprint
➡️Is cost-efficient
➡️Supports circular economy
➡️India’s policy aligns with this global momentum.