Positivism

Let us start with a very basic yet important point: “What is science and what is knowledge?”
Even among philosophers, there is no consensus about this. Different thinkers have interpreted science differently. Broadly, two major schools have emerged regarding this understanding:

• Positivism
• Humanism

Today, our focus is on Positivism.

What is Positivism?

Positivism is not just a random idea; it is a philosophical movement that believes science and the scientific method are the only valid ways to gain knowledge.
It strictly separates facts (data) from values (culture, ethics, traditions).
Moreover, positivism shows hostility towards religion and metaphysics, arguing that matters that cannot be scientifically tested are not meaningful knowledge.

Founder of Positivism: Auguste Comte

The term Positivism was coined by Auguste Comte (1798–1857), a French philosopher.

Comte made a sharp observation:
Before the 19th century, social research was mostly speculative (guesswork), emotional (influenced by feelings), and romantic (imaginative rather than practical).
Because of this, it lacked rigour and analytical reasoning.

Thus, Comte said:

• Reject metaphysical and normative questions — because you can’t answer them scientifically.
• Focus only on facts and truths that can be observed and tested.
• If something cannot be sensed or measured, it is not real knowledge.

Real-world analogy:
Think of a criminal investigation. A detective doesn’t solve a case based on emotions or gut feelings; they solve it by collecting hard evidence — fingerprints, CCTV footage, DNA samples.
Similarly, Comte believed knowledge should be based only on evidence-based observations, not on emotions or speculations.

Core Principles of Positivism

According to positivism:

• To be scientific means being objective, truthful, and neutral.
• Science must be free from values like personal bias, tradition, or emotions.

There are two famous branches within positivism:

1. Logical Positivism (Verification method)
2. Critical Rationalism (Falsification method)

Logical Positivism: Verification

Developed by the Vienna Circle in the 1920s.

They believed:

• Social laws (like scientific laws) can be discovered.
• How? By measuring large samples, testing, and verifying hypotheses.

Example:
If you want to find the average rainfall pattern in India, you don’t trust one or two experiences; you collect huge amounts of rainfall data across the country and then verify the patterns scientifically.

Critical Rationalism: Falsification

Introduced by Karl Popper as a response to logical positivism.

Popper said:

• It’s impossible to prove a law completely by repeated verifications.
• Instead, a scientific law is considered strong if it survives attempts to falsify it.

Real-world analogy:
Imagine you have a theory: “All swans are white.”
Seeing thousands of white swans verifies it but doesn’t prove it universally.
However, if you find even one black swan, the theory collapses.
Thus, science progresses by falsification, not just verification.

Philosophical Stance of Positivism

• Anti-Idealism: Reality is external to the mind; it’s not just a mental construct.
• No moral judgments: You can’t test tastes, traditions, or moral values scientifically.
  Hence, positivism avoids normative questions like “What is good?” or “What should be done?”

Essence:
Science must be value-free, neutral, impartial, and objective.

Positivism in Geography

Before the 1950s, Geography was mainly descriptive — it just described landscapes, rivers, cities, etc., without scientific analysis.

But in the 1950s, during the Quantitative Revolution, things changed:

• Geography moved from ideographic (dealing with individual places and events) to nomothetic (seeking general laws and theories).
• Geographers wanted to make Geography a science, much like Physics or Chemistry.

However, by the 1980s and 1990s, criticisms of positivism increased.

Criticism of Positivism in Geography

Many scholars pointed out:

• True objectivity is impossible because scientists are also humans with biases.
• Agency (individual actions) and structure (social systems) were ignored.
• It falsely assumed that social systems are closed and predictable like physical systems — which they are not.
• By focusing only on observable facts, many complex human interactions and geographical phenomena were neglected.

For example:

• Can we understand urban poverty simply by collecting data?
• No — we must also understand emotions, power structures, and cultural dimensions, which positivism ignores.

Positivism Today in Human Geography

Despite criticisms, positivism still remains influential.

Most human geographers agree:

• Scientific principles and laws are crucial.
• But, there is a growing awareness that social complexities must also be recognized.

Thus, modern geography tries to balance scientific rigour with an understanding of human complexities.

Connecting Quantitative Techniques with Positivism in Geography

When geographers started using mathematics, statistics, and models, they were applying the scientific method to geography.
Let’s see how each tool fits:

Regression Analysis

👉 Example: Predicting urban population growth based on variables like income, literacy, or transport facilities.

• Objective measurement: No personal opinion — just numbers.
• Verifiable prediction: Anyone can check the result by applying the formula.

➔ Directly matches Positivism: science should predict based on data.

Correlation Analysis

👉 Example: Studying whether rainfall and crop yield are related.

• Quantifies relationships: How strongly are two variables connected?
• Removes subjectivity: Instead of saying “maybe”, we prove it statistically.

➔ Fits Positivist demand for measurable, logical explanation.

Gravity Model

👉 Example: Predicting migration between Delhi and Mumbai using population and distance.

• Based on scientific law: Inspired by Newtonian physics.
• Predicts human behavior mathematically.
• Can be tested and modified like any scientific theory.

➔ Strong Positivist approach: Laws of human interaction, based on numbers, just like laws of nature!

✨ Summary Crux:

Quantitative Technique	Connection to Positivism
Regression	Predicts outcomes objectively
Correlation	Measures relationships scientifically
Gravity Model	Creates a law-like model for human behavior

➔ All these made Geography more scientific, data-driven, and predictive — exactly what Positivism demands!

To summarise Positivism in one line:

“Positivism gave Geography a scientific backbone, but to study humans, one must also recognize that not everything that counts can be counted.”