United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

🧾 Background

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty created under the aegis of the United Nations.

Origin

• Negotiated in New York (1992)
• Opened for signature at the Rio Earth Summit (UNCED), 1992
• Entered into force in 1994
• As of 2025, it has 198 Parties (near-universal membership)

📌 Important UPSC point:
UNFCCC is a framework convention, not a control law.

🎯 Objective of the UNFCCC

The Convention’s core objective is:

To stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

This must be achieved:

• Within a time-frame sufficient for ecosystems to adapt naturally
• Without threatening food production
• While enabling sustainable economic development

👉 Notice the balance: environment + food security + development.

⚖️ Legal Nature of UNFCCC

• Legally non-binding
• It does not set emission targets
• It only provides a platform and principles for future negotiations

📌 This is why it is called a “framework” convention.

🧭 Role of UNFCCC

UNFCCC functions as:

• A negotiating platform
• A norm-setting framework
• A process-driven treaty

What it actually does:

• Enables negotiation of protocols and agreements
• Provides institutional continuity
• Establishes principles like:
  • Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)
  • Equity
  • Historical responsibility

📌 Binding obligations came later, not from UNFCCC itself.

🏛️ Conference of the Parties (COP)

The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC.

Key Features

• All State Parties are represented
• Meets annually (since 1995)
• Reviews:
  • Implementation of the Convention
  • Progress of protocols and agreements
• Can adopt new legal instruments

📌 COP decisions guide global climate policy direction.

📌 CMP – Meeting of Kyoto Parties

• CMP = COP serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol
• Exists alongside COP after Kyoto came into force

👉 Hence:

• COP → UNFCCC
• CMP → Kyoto Protocol

🗓️ Major UNFCCC COP Summits

Instead of memorising all summits, let’s focus on major points. However, if you want to read about all the UNFCCC COP Summits, you can do so by visiting here.

COP 1 – Berlin (1995)

• Berlin Mandate
• Recognised that voluntary measures were inadequate
• Called for legally binding targets for developed countries

📌 This led directly to Kyoto.

COP 3 – Kyoto (1997)

• Birth of the Kyoto Protocol
• Introduced legally binding emission reduction targets
• Applicable only to developed (Annex I) countries

COP 8 – New Delhi (2002)

• Held in India
• Emphasised development and adaptation
• Highlighted the concerns of developing countries

COP 11 / CMP 1 – Montreal (2005)

• Kyoto Protocol entered into force
• First meeting of Kyoto Parties (CMP 1)

COP 15 – Copenhagen (2009)

• High expectations, low outcome
• Produced Copenhagen Accord (non-binding)
• Exposed deep North–South divide

📌 Often cited as a diplomatic failure.

COP 17 – Durban (2011)

• Durban Platform
• Laid the groundwork for a new universal climate agreement
• Applicable to all countries

👉 This paved the way for Paris.

COP 21 – Paris (2015)

• Adoption of the Paris Agreement
• Shift from binding targets → Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)
• Universality replaced strict differentiation

📌 This is the most important COP for UPSC.

COP 26 – Glasgow (2021)

• Focus on:
  • Net-zero pledges
  • Coal phase-down (not phase-out)
• Strengthened transparency and ambition

COP 27 – Sharm El-Sheikh (2022)

• Major outcome: Loss and Damage Fund
• Recognised climate impacts on vulnerable nations

COP 28 – Dubai (2023)

• First Global Stocktake
• Focus on transition away from fossil fuels
• Renewed emphasis on climate finance

COP 29 – Baku (2024)

• Focused on climate finance
• Negotiations on New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) beyond $100 bn
• Progress on operationalising Loss and Damage Fund

📌 Known as the “Finance COP”

COP 30 – Belém (2025)

• Focus on climate justice and Indigenous rights
• Push to triple adaptation finance
• Continued debate on fossil fuel phase‑out

📌 Known as the “Justice COP”

❌ Criticisms of the UNFCCC Regime

1️⃣ Lack of Binding Commitments

• Except Kyoto, no treaty imposed binding emission caps
• UNFCCC itself is non-binding

2️⃣ Failure to Reduce Emissions

• Global CO₂ emissions have continued to rise
• Objective of stabilisation not achieved

3️⃣ Exclusion of Major Emitters

• Developing countries were exempted under Kyoto
• Today, some of the largest emitters are developing nations

4️⃣ Consensus-Based Negotiations

• Decisions require consensus
• Small groups of countries can block progress

5️⃣ Evasion by Developed Countries

• USA never ratified Kyoto
• Canada withdrew (economic cost argument)
• Japan and Russia exited second commitment period
• Cited unfair competition from China, India, Indonesia

📌 This weakened trust in global climate governance.

🧠 How UPSC Tests UNFCCC

• Difference between UNFCCC, Kyoto, and Paris
• Why UNFCCC is non-binding
• Critically analyse effectiveness of COPs
• Link climate justice, CBDR, and equity

✨ Conclusion

The UNFCCC provides the institutional and normative framework for global climate negotiations, but its effectiveness has been constrained by non-binding commitments, consensus-based decision-making, and deep North–South divides.