Foreign Invasions and the Final Collapse of the Mughal Empire
If we try to understand the decline of the Mughal Empire not just as a political story but as a human tragedy, then two foreign names emerge like thunderbolts — Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali. Their invasions were not just military expeditions; they were devastating blows to an already crumbling imperial structure. Let’s try to understand what happened, and why their invasions shook the subcontinent to its core.
Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739)
Who was Nadir Shah?
Nadir Shah was not just another ambitious warlord. He was a military genius and the founder of the Afsharid dynasty of Persia (modern-day Iran). He ruled from 1736 to 1747, and within a short span, he transformed Persia into a powerful empire. By 1736 itself, he had taken control over most of present-day Afghanistan.
However, in 1747, Nadir Shah was assassinated, and his control over the region ended. His military legacy, however, continued through his general Ahmed Shah Abdali, who we’ll come to in a moment.
Why Did He Invade India?
Nadir Shah’s eyes turned towards India, not for territory, but for its unimaginable wealth. India was known throughout the world for its riches, and the Mughal treasury still had immense treasures accumulated over generations.
At the same time, the northwestern frontiers of the Mughal Empire were poorly defended, a result of administrative neglect and political weakness. Taking advantage of this vulnerability, Nadir Shah entered Indian territory unopposed in 1738.
The Battle of Karnal (13 February 1739)
The Mughal emperor at that time, Muhammad Shah, attempted to stop him at Karnal (present-day Haryana), but the Mughal army was soundly defeated.
Nadir Shah captured Muhammad Shah, marched into Delhi, and what followed was one of the most brutal sackings in Indian history. The Persian army plundered Delhi mercilessly.
Nadir Shah carried away two priceless symbols of Mughal imperial grandeur:
- The Koh-i-Noor diamond
- The Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan
These were not just jewels; they were the symbols of Mughal legitimacy and imperial power.
He also forced the Mughal emperor to hand over all provinces west of the Indus River, which included Kabul, Ghazni, and Qandahar. This strategic loss reopened India to invasions from the northwest, a pattern that would continue in the coming decades.
Ahmed Shah Abdali’s Invasions (1748–1767)
Who was Abdali?
Ahmed Shah Abdali, later known as Ahmed Shah Durrani, was one of Nadir Shah’s most trusted and able generals. After Nadir Shah’s death, he established the Durrani Empire in Afghanistan and quickly turned his attention to northern India — both for economic gain and political influence.
Series of Invasions
Between 1748 and 1767, Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded India eight times. His goal was never to rule India directly but to plunder its wealth and control its politics from a distance.
In 1751–52, the Mughals were so weakened that they tried to “buy peace” by ceding Punjab to him.
In 1757, Abdali captured Delhi and placed an Afghan caretaker to monitor the Mughal emperor. He didn’t depose the emperor but manipulated the imperial setup:
- He recognized Alamgir II as the Mughal emperor.
- He appointed Najib-ud-Daulah, a powerful Rohilla chief, as the Mir Bakshi (the head of military affairs) — who also acted as Abdali’s supreme agent in India.
This means, in effect, the Mughals were reduced to a puppet regime, with real control in the hands of external forces.
The Maratha Response
In 1758, Raghunath Rao, a Maratha commander, attacked Delhi, expelled Najib-ud-Daulah, and captured Punjab. This was a moment of revival for Maratha ambitions in North India.
But Abdali would not let that go unanswered.
Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
In 1759, Ahmed Shah Abdali returned with a powerful army to avenge his losses. This led to the famous and tragic Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
In this battle, Abdali defeated the Marathas decisively, ending their dreams of ruling all of India. The battlefield was soaked in blood — it is considered one of the largest and bloodiest battles of the 18th century.
But interestingly, Abdali never tried to establish an Afghan kingdom in India. He withdrew, leaving behind political chaos.
Effect of the Invasions
The invasions of Nadir Shah and Abdali were more than just military raids. Their impact was structural, psychological, and long-term:
- Loss of Prestige: The Mughals lost their imperial aura. No longer were they the unchallenged rulers of Hindustan.
- Financial Destruction: The Mughal treasury was emptied. The economic life of the empire was shattered.
- Administrative Collapse: The imperial administration was paralysed. Nobles, in their desperation to restore their lost fortunes, began oppressing the peasants, further destabilizing society.
- End of the Empire in Practical Terms: By 1761, after Panipat, the Mughal Empire had practically ceased to exist as an all-India political entity. It now remained confined to Delhi and its surroundings, more like a symbolic monarchy than a real power.
Conclusion: The Fall Before the Fall
Often, when we study the Mughal decline, we focus on Aurangzeb’s policies or the rise of regional powers. But these foreign invasions were the final nails in the coffin. They not only looted India’s wealth but also exposed the fragility of an empire that once claimed to be the greatest in the world.
By mid-18th century, the Mughal emperor was no longer a sovereign but a pawn — sometimes in the hands of the Afghans, sometimes the Marathas, and eventually, the British.
Let this part of history remind us: a glorious past can be wiped out not just by internal weaknesses, but by failing to protect against external threats.