Expansion of British Rule in North India (1818–1857)

By 1818, the British had already defeated the Mysore Sultanate and dismantled Maratha power. The entire Indian subcontinent, except Punjab and Sindh, was either:

• Directly ruled by the British East India Company, or
• Nominally ruled by Indian princes who were under British paramountcy.

The next four decades would see the British move into the north-west, annexing Sindh, Punjab, Awadh, Central Provinces, and many smaller states — completing the conquest of India.

The Global Context – Fear of a Foreign Invasion

Napoleon’s Eastern Ambitions

In the late 18th century, British India was not just threatened by Indian powers — there was also the shadow of European rivalry.

• 1798 – Napoleon Bonaparte’s expedition to Egypt signalled his interest in striking at British India.
• He considered alliances with Indian rulers — particularly Tipu Sultan — to drive out the British.
• 1801 – Russian Tsar Paul I proposed a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India. Napoleon, wary of the plan, did not proceed.
• 1807 – Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I signed the Treaty of Tilsit, agreeing to invade India through Turkey with Persian support.

British Countermove – Anglo-Persian Treaty (1809)

When British intelligence learned of the Tilsit plan:

• They signed a treaty with Persia in 1809.
• Persia agreed not to allow any foreign army to pass towards India.
• Britain promised military aid to Persia if attacked by a foreign power.

This treaty ended the possibility of a French invasion, but British fears of a north-western threat remained.

The Great Game – Anglo-Russian Rivalry

From Napoleon’s fall in 1815 to the late 19th century, British India’s rulers lived with one constant fear — a Russian invasion through the north-west.

• Russian Expansion – Russia advanced into Central Asia, aiming to counter Britain by keeping the threat of intervention in India alive.
• British Response – Strengthened their position in Afghanistan, Persia, and the north-west frontier to guard against any Russian move.

This Anglo-Russian rivalry came to be known as The Great Game, shaping much of British frontier policy in the 19th century.

The Conquest of Sindh (1843)

By the early 1840s, Sindh was no longer just a small princely state on the fringes of British India — it had become a strategic frontier in the great Anglo-Russian rivalry. For the British, Sindh was the gateway to the Indus River and a buffer zone against a possible Russian advance through Afghanistan or Persia.

Why Sindh Became Important to the British

1. The Great Game Factor –
   The British feared that Russia could use Afghanistan or Persia as a route to attack India. Controlling Sindh would give them strategic depth and a secure north-western frontier.
2. Commercial Interests –
   • The Indus River was seen as a possible trade artery to connect the north-west with Bombay and beyond.
   • Sindh was also a hub for the Malwa opium trade — the British wanted to regulate, tax, and eventually control this lucrative route.
3. Aftermath of the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–42) –
   • The Amirs of Sindh had grown hostile, sensing British weakness after setbacks in Afghanistan.
   • The British, worried that such hostility might inspire other rulers, decided to act firmly.
4. Napier’s Personal Ambition –
   Some historians believe Sir Charles Napier himself pushed for annexation to gain prestige and reward in Britain.

Step-by-Step British Entry into Sindh

1. Treaty of Friendship (1809)

• Aimed at keeping French influence out of Sindh.
• Both parties agreed to exchange diplomatic agents and deny entry to French envoys.

2. Treaty of 1832 (Governor-General William Bentinck)

• Negotiated by Colonel Pottinger.
• Opened Sindh’s roads and rivers to British trade.
• Prohibited British troop movement in Sindh without permission.

3. Sindh as a British Protectorate (1838)

• During the First Anglo-Afghan War, Lord Auckland sought to strengthen control over Sindh.
• A new treaty made Sindh a British protectorate.
• Company troops were stationed in Sindh at the Amirs’ expense.

4. Acceptance of Subsidiary Alliance (1839)

• The Amirs agreed to station a British subsidiary force permanently.
• Annual payment: ₹3 lakh for the upkeep of Company troops.
• Sindh was divided into three principalities — Hyderabad (Lower Sindh), Khairpur, and Mirpur — further weakening unity.

Annexation – The Battle of Miani (17 February 1843)

• Governor-General Lord Ellenborough (1842–44) prioritised securing the western frontier after the Afghan disaster.
• Sir Charles Napier, leading British forces, defeated the Amirs of Sindh at Miani.
• Despite earlier British assurances to respect Sindh’s territorial integrity, the province was annexed.

Aftermath

• Sindh was incorporated into the Bombay Presidency (1843).
• Sir Charles Napier was made First Chief Commissioner and Governor of Sindh and awarded ₹7 lakh in prize money.
• In 1936, Sindh was separated from Bombay Presidency and became a separate province.

Conquest of Punjab

By the early 19th century, Punjab under Maharaja Ranjit Singh stood as a powerful and independent buffer state between British India and the North-West frontier.
Initially, the British valued Punjab as a shield against possible foreign invasion — especially from Napoleon’s France or Tsarist Russia during the Great Game.

Phase 1 – Alliance & Boundaries (1809)

Treaty of Amritsar (Minto–Metcalfe Treaty), 1809

• Context: Napoleon’s threat to India via Persia/Afghanistan diminished after the Anglo-Persian Treaty (1809).
• Terms:
  1. Sutlej River marked the boundary — British controlled Cis-Sutlej States, Ranjit Singh retained Trans-Sutlej territories.
  2. Ranjit Singh barred from expanding east of Sutlej but free to expand west (Kashmir, Peshawar).
• Impact:

• Secured British NW frontier.
• Limited Sikh expansion eastwards.

Phase 2 – Political Stability Ends (1839–1845)

• Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839 triggered instability:
  • Weak successors.
  • Court intrigues.
  • Powerful but undisciplined Khalsa Army became politically dominant.
• British officials began planning for eventual control of Punjab, especially under Governor-General Ellenborough (1843).

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)

Immediate Cause:

• December 11, 1845 – Khalsa army crossed Sutlej, allegedly violating 1809 treaty.
• Governor-General Sir Henry Hardinge declared war (13 Dec 1845).

Underlying Causes:

1. British ambition to control Punjab before it became too unstable.
2. Factional politics in Lahore Durbar (PM Raja Lal Singh & Commander-in-Chief Tej Singh secretly aiding British).

Course of the War

• Despite Khalsa Army’s courage, treachery at the top led to defeats in successive battles (Mudki, Ferozeshah, Aliwal, Sobraon).

Treaty of Lahore (9 March 1846)

1. Loss of Territory: Jalandhar Doab annexed.
2. War Indemnity: Over ₹1 crore imposed.
3. Military Reduction: Army limited to 20,000 infantry & 12,000 cavalry.
4. British Resident: Permanent British officer stationed at Lahore with strong military force.

Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846)

• Since indemnity couldn’t be paid, territories of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh sold to Maharaja Gulab Singh for ₹75 lakh.
• Created the princely state of Jammu & Kashmir under Dogra rule.

Treaty of Bhairowal (16 Dec 1846)

1. Maharani Jind Kaur removed from power.
2. British Resident given full control over Punjab’s governance.
3. British troops allowed anywhere in Punjab.

• Result: Punjab became a dependent state, awaiting full annexation.

Consequences of the First Anglo-Sikh War

• Punjab’s independence crippled.
• Khalsa Army humiliated but not destroyed — setting the stage for the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49).
• Birth of the princely state of Jammu & Kashmir (Hindu Dogra ruler over Muslim-majority region).

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) – End of the Sikh Empire

By 1846, Punjab had become a dependent state under the Treaty of Bhairowal, with a British Resident controlling administration. However, the Khalsa pride was still alive, and the British were waiting for an excuse to remove indirect rule and bring Punjab directly under their control.

Immediate Trigger

• April 1848 – Multan Incident:
  • Diwan Mulraj Chopra, Governor of Multan, was ordered to be replaced by Sirdar Khan Singh and Lt. Patrick Vans Agnew (British Political Agent).
  • Upon arrival, Vans Agnew and his colleague Lt. William Anderson were attacked by an angry mob and murdered.
  • These murders sparked widespread uprisings — led by Mulraj at Multan and Sardar Chattar Singh Attariwala near Lahore.

Course of the War

• British troops under Lord Dalhousie moved decisively.
• The Sikh rebels fought bravely but were weakened by lack of central leadership and the British’s superior organisation.
• In 1849, the Sikh forces were defeated at Gujrat, ending organised resistance.

Annexation of Punjab (1849)

• Lord Dalhousie annexed Punjab to the British Empire.
• This ended the independent Sikh kingdom — ironically, the very kingdom the British had once promised to “protect.”

Duleep Singh – The Last Maharaja

• Son of Maharaja Ranjit Singh & Maharani Jind Kaur.
• Became Maharaja at age 5 (1843).
• After the First Anglo-Sikh War, recognised as ruler under the Treaty of Lahore; Jind Kaur acted as regent.
• Treaty of Bhairowal (1846) removed Jind Kaur from power — sent to Banaras.
• After 1849 defeat, both mother and son were exiled to Chunar.
• Later, Duleep Singh was taken to England, converted to Christianity, and raised away from Sikh culture.
• In later years, he reconverted to Sikhism and even sought Russian help to regain Punjab — but Tsar Alexander III refused.
• British never allowed him to return to India.

Administration after Annexation

• Initially run by a Board of Administration (1849–1853):
  1. Henry Lawrence – Head of the Board.
  2. John Lawrence – Key member, later Chief Commissioner (1853–1858) and first Lieutenant Governor of Punjab (1859).
  3. Charles Grenville Mansel – Member.
• 1853: Board replaced by Chief Commissioner.
• 1859: Office upgraded to Lieutenant Governor after power shifted from the East India Company to the Crown.

Anglo-Sikh Wars – Key Treaties Table

War	Year	Treaties
First Anglo-Sikh War	1845–46	Treaty of Lahore (1846), Treaty of Amritsar (1846), Treaty of Bhairowal (1846)
Second Anglo-Sikh War	1848–49	Annexation – No Treaty (Punjab incorporated into British India)