Expansion of British India in India’s Frontiers: An Overview

When we talk about the foreign policy of India during British rule, it’s very important to remember one thing: India was not making its own foreign policy.
It was the British who were ruling India, so whatever “India’s foreign policy” was at that time, it was actually the foreign policy of the British Empire—designed to protect British interests, not India’s.

The British had two big goals in Asia and Africa:

1. Strategic Goal – Defend the Indian Empire and prevent any European power (like France or Russia) from coming close to India.
2. Economic Goal – Use India as a base to promote British trade and economic interests.

To achieve these goals, the British often expanded beyond India’s natural boundaries. But here’s the catch—the cost was paid by India, not Britain:

• Indian soldiers fought and died in these campaigns.
• Indian taxpayers funded these wars—by 1904, more than half of India’s revenue was going into maintaining the army.

So, Britain got the benefit, India paid the bill.

From Traders to Territorial Expansionists

The British came as traders through the East India Company (EIC). Slowly, they interfered in Indian politics, annexed territories, and consolidated their power over the subcontinent. Once India was under their firm control, they looked beyond—towards neighbouring countries—both for strategic protection and commercial opportunities.

When we think about the British conquest of India, our mind usually goes to Bengal, Mysore, Marathas, or Punjab. But after securing the subcontinent, the British gaze shifted beyond India’s natural frontiers—to the mountains, valleys, and kingdoms that bordered it. This was not a journey of friendship or cultural exchange—it was a calculated move shaped by the twin engines of British imperialism: strategic security and commercial gain.

From the beginning of the 19th century, every significant change in India’s relations with its neighbours was decided in London and Calcutta, not in Delhi or Kathmandu. The British wanted India to be a fortress for their empire in Asia, and they believed that controlling or influencing neighbouring states was essential to protect it. But here is the important thing—the benefits of this expansion went to Britain, while the costs were borne by India. Indian soldiers fought these frontier wars, and Indian taxpayers paid for them.

The Northern Mountains – Nepal and Afghanistan

In the north, the British found themselves face-to-face with the powerful Gorkhas of Nepal and the volatile politics of Afghanistan. With Nepal, the issue began over ill-defined borders in Gorakhpur and escalated into the Anglo–Nepal War (1814–16). It ended with the Treaty of Sugauli, which gave the British strategic hill territories like Kumaon and Garhwal.

With Afghanistan, the British fear of Russian expansion—part of the so-called “Great Game”—pulled them into two costly wars. The First Anglo–Afghan War (1838–42) was a disaster, wiping out almost an entire British–Indian force. The Second Anglo–Afghan War (1878–80) ended more favourably for the British, with the Treaty of Gandamak placing Afghanistan’s foreign policy under their control.

The Eastern Frontier – Burma and Assam

To the east, the British clashed with another expansionist power—Burma. The First Anglo–Burmese War (1824–26), triggered by Burmese advances into Manipur and Assam, ended with the Treaty of Yandabo, giving Britain Assam, Arakan, and Tenasserim. The Second Anglo–Burmese War (1852–53) was driven almost entirely by commercial greed, bringing the whole coastline under British control. The Third Anglo–Burmese War (1885) completed the annexation of Burma into British India.

Control over Assam also brought the British into contact—and conflict—with Bhutan. The Duar War (1864) ended with the Treaty of Sinchula, by which Bhutan ceded the Bengal and Assam Duars.

The Himalayan States – Sikkim and Bhutan

Sikkim, a small Himalayan kingdom, entered the British orbit after the Anglo–Nepal War. Over time, British influence deepened, and by the Treaty of Tumlong (1861), Sikkim became a British protectorate. Bhutan’s story was more turbulent, marked by raids, skirmishes, and the Duar War, after which the British controlled its strategic foothills.

A Pattern Across the Frontiers

In each case—Nepal, Burma, Afghanistan, Bhutan, or Sikkim—the pattern was similar. The British justified intervention in the name of security (to prevent other powers, especially Russia or France, from coming too close to India) and commerce (to open new markets and trade routes). But behind these official reasons lay a larger imperial mindset: the more territory they controlled or influenced, the safer their empire seemed.

By the end of the 19th century, British India was not just the Indian subcontinent—it was a vast political sphere stretching from the borders of Persia in the west to the forests of Burma in the east, and from the Himalayas in the north to the Indian Ocean in the south. This expansion was not achieved in a single war or treaty—it was a long process of calculated moves, opportunistic interventions, and, sometimes, open conquest.

And as we will see in the rest of this chapter, each frontier story—whether it is of a Gorkha general in the Himalayan passes, a Burmese king in Mandalay, or an Afghan amir in Kabul—was shaped by this central truth: the British were determined to make India’s borders serve the interests of their empire, no matter the cost to India itself.

Important Events and Governors-General

Governors-General of Bengal

Governor-General	In Office	Event(s)
Lord Hastings (Lord Moira)	1813–1823	Anglo–Nepal War (1814–16)
Lord Amherst	1823–1828	First Anglo–Burmese War (1824–26)

Governors-General of India

Governor-General	In Office	Event(s)
Lord Auckland	1836–1842	First Afghan War (1838–42)
Lord Dalhousie	1848–1856	Second Anglo–Burmese War (1852–53)
John Lawrence	1864–1869	Duar War (1864)

Governors-General and Viceroys

Governor-General / Viceroy	In Office	Event(s)
Lord Lytton	1876–1880	Second Afghan War (1878–80)
Lord Dufferin	1884–1888	Third Anglo–Burmese War (1885)
Lord Curzon	1899–1905	British Invasion of Tibet (1904)
Lord Chelmsford	1916–1921	Third Afghan War (1919–21)

Important Wars and Associated Treaties

War	Associated Treaty
Anglo–Nepal War (1814–16)	Treaty of Sugauli (1816)
First Anglo–Burmese War (1824–26)	Treaty of Yandabo (1826)
Second Afghan War (1878–80)	Treaty of Gandamak (1879)
Duar War (1864–65)	Treaty of Sinchula (1865)

Important Timeline

Kumaon and Garhwal Regions

• Event: Anglo–Nepal War (1814–16)
• Treaty: Treaty of Sugauli (1816)
• Outcome: British acquired Kumaon–Garhwal regions west of the River Kali.

Burma (Myanmar)

• Period: 1824–1885
• Events: Three Anglo–Burmese Wars.
• Outcome: In 1885, after the Third Anglo–Burmese War, Burma was annexed into British India.

Sikkim

• Event: Treaty of Tumlong (1861)
• Outcome: Sikkim became a British protectorate.

Bengal and Assam Duars

• Event: Duar War (1864) against Bhutan
• Treaty: Treaty of Sinchula (1865)
• Outcome: Bhutan ceded all Bengal and Assam Duars to the British.

Afghanistan

• Event: Second Anglo–Afghan War (1878–80)
• Outcome: British gained control over Afghanistan’s foreign policy.