Anti-Colonial Tribal Movements: Case Studies

In this section we shall discuss detailed case studies of some of the earliest anti-colonial tribal movements. This is where history comes alive, because we see not just abstract policies, but human stories of bravery, suffering, and sacrifice. Let’s go!

1. Tilka Manjhi Revolt (1784)

Background: Pahadia Tribes of Rajmahal Hills

• The Pahadias (hill people) lived around the Rajmahal Hills (present-day Jharkhand/Bihar border).
• They were hunters, shifting cultivators, food gatherers, charcoal makers, and silkworm rearers.
• For centuries, they lived relatively undisturbed — even great empires of the past had left them alone.

But this changed dramatically after the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar (1764), when the East India Company (EIC) became rulers of Bengal.

Impact of British Policies

• The Company imposed heavy taxes on the Pahadias, impossible for subsistence communities to pay.
• The Great Bengal Famine of 1770 worsened their misery: while people starved, the Company still demanded revenue.

The Revolt and Santhal Hool

• In 1771, Tilka Manjhi, a tribal leader, rose in defiance.
• He and his band raided the Company’s treasury at Jabalpur and distributed wealth among Adivasis.
• Inspired by him, more Santhals joined — and the movement spread as the Santhal Hool (Santhal Revolt).
• From 1771 to 1784, Tilka fought guerrilla-style battles against the Company and never surrendered.

First Armed Rebellion Against the British

• In 1784, Tilka Manjhi attacked Augustus Cleveland, a Company administrator, and fatally wounded him.
• This act is remembered as the first armed rebellion against the British in India.

Root causes included:

1. Bengal famine of 1770,
2. Harsh land settlements (ten-year settlement) that reduced negotiation between zamindars and villagers.

Suppression and Martyrdom

• The British retaliated with a massive force, laid siege to his jungle hideout, and captured him.
• Tilka was tied to the tail of a horse and dragged to Bhagalpur, where his mutilated body was hung from a banyan tree.
• His sacrifice marked the beginning of armed tribal resistance against colonialism.

2. Paika Rebellion (1817)

Background: Who were the Paikas?

• The Paikas were the traditional peasant militia of Odisha.
• They served the Gajapati rulers of Khurda during wars and returned to farming in peacetime.
• In return, they held rent-free hereditary lands and titles.

Coming of the British

• Odisha was under the Marathas until 1803. After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, Odisha was ceded to the British.
• With this, the Paikas lost their privileges.

British policies that angered them:

1. New revenue settlements → hereditary lands taken away.
2. Suppression of traditional militia → decline of their social standing.
3. Exploitation of peasants → increased taxes, repression, and interference.

The Revolt (1817)

• Under Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, the hereditary chief of the Paikas, a mass uprising broke out.
• Rebels attacked British symbols of authority:
  • Police stations burned,
  • Treasury looted,
  • Administrative offices destroyed.
• The rebellion had strong peasant participation, not just Paikas, because economic grievances were widespread.

Outcome

• Initially, the British were taken aback by the ferocity.
• But with superior weapons and reinforcements, they gradually crushed the revolt.
• Jagabandhu evaded capture for years, but in 1825, he surrendered and lived as a prisoner in Cuttack until his death in 1829.

Legacy

• The Paika Rebellion is seen as an early precursor to the Revolt of 1857.
• Since 2017, Odisha has been pressing for it to be officially recognised as the First War of Independence, much like 1857 is regarded.

3. Ramoshi Uprising (1824–1831)

Background

• The Ramoshis were a nomadic tribal community in central India.
• Under the Marathas, they had a recognised role:
  • They worked as night patrollers and guardians of forts.
  • In return, they were granted the right to collect taxes from certain villages.

When the East India Company replaced Maratha rule, these privileges were withdrawn.

The Revolt

• In 1824, the Ramoshis united under Umaji Naik, a charismatic leader.
• They launched armed resistance against the British.
• Tactics: plundering attacks on Company institutions, treasuries, and even on locals siding with the British.
• This revolt was not just about lost privileges — it was about asserting dignity and autonomy.

Outcome

• The uprising lasted almost eight years.
• Umaji Naik was eventually captured in 1831 and executed on 3rd February 1832.
• His martyrdom made him a folk hero in Maharashtra’s memory of resistance.

4. Ahom Revolt (1828)

Background

• Assam was under Burmese occupation until the Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26).
• After the Treaty of Yandaboo (1826), the British promised to leave Assam. But instead, they continued occupation.
• This angered the Ahom nobility, who had long been rulers of Assam.

The Revolt

• Led by Gomadhar Konwar, an Ahom prince, with the support of nobles like Dhanjay Borgohain and Jairam Khargharia Phukan.
• Gomadhar declared himself Svargadev (Lord of the Heavens, a traditional Ahom royal title).
• Rebels interfered with revenue collection and advanced towards Rangpur, the British headquarters.

Outcome

• The plan was exposed, rebels were suppressed, and the revolt crushed.
• Although it failed, it showed the Ahom desire to restore their lost sovereignty.

5. Santhal Hool / Uprising (1855–56)

This is one of the most famous and large-scale tribal revolts in Indian history.

Background: Settlement of Santhals

• Late 18th century: British failed to subdue the Paharias of Rajmahal Hills.
• Instead, they encouraged Santhals (migrants from Chotanagpur plateau) to settle in the region.
• By 1832, a large area was demarcated as Damin-i-Koh (Land of Santhals).

Initially, Santhals prospered by clearing forests and cultivating land. But soon:

• Zamindars and moneylenders entered, exploiting them.
• Merchants and officials (dikus) trapped them in debt and oppression.
• Their autonomy was eroded, and their misery deepened.

The Revolt

• In June 1855, at Bhaganidihi village, two brothers Sidhu Murmu and Kanhu Murmu gathered thousands of Santhals.
• They declared themselves free from Company rule and decided to set up their own government.
• They claimed divine sanction — saying Thakur (God) had commanded them to fight.
• This belief made the movement not just political, but also religious and moral — a struggle of good against evil.

Course of the Revolt

• Santhals attacked zamindars, moneylenders, police stations, and Company outposts.
• They fought with bows, arrows, axes, and swords, often in large numbers.
• Despite their bravery, the British army with modern rifles and artillery brutally crushed the rebellion.
• Villages were burned, thousands killed.

Aftermath and Legacy

1. The Santhal revolt shook the colonial government, forcing them to rethink policies.
2. In response, they carved out Santhal Parganas (1855 onwards) from Bhagalpur and Birbhum to give Santhals a separate administrative area.
3. Later, the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876) was enacted:
   • Prohibited sale/transfer of Adivasi land to outsiders.
   • Offered some protection against exploitation.

Thus, even in defeat, the Santhals forced the colonial state to adapt.

6. Rampa Rebellion (1879–1880)

Background

• The Koya and Konda Reddi tribes lived in the Rampa region of the Eastern Ghats (modern Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Malkangiri in Odisha).
• They resented the growing intrusion of police officials, moneylenders, and landlords into their forested areas.

Course of the Revolt

• In 1879, under Thamman Dora, the Koyas attacked police stations and mansabdars (feudal landlords).
• The rebellion spread widely, and Tomma Dora was even hailed as the “King” of Malkangiri.

Significance

• The rebellion highlighted tribal anger against administrative oppression and loss of autonomy.
• It foreshadowed the later and even larger Rampa Revolt of 1922–24, led by Alluri Seetarama Raju.

7. Bhil Agitations (1883 onwards)

The Bhils, spread across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh, also rose against both colonial policies and exploitation by local chiefs.

First Bhil Agitation (1883)

• Led by Govind Guru, a social and religious reformer.
• Known as the Bhagat Movement, it protested against bonded labour and oppressive taxation, particularly in princely states.
• Govind Guru also preached moral reforms — vegetarianism, abstinence from liquor, and unity among Bhils.

Mangarh Massacre (1913)

• On 17 November 1913, thousands of Bhils had gathered at Mangarh Hills (Rajasthan–Gujarat border) under Govind Guru’s leadership.
• The British and princely state forces opened fire, killing hundreds of Bhils — often compared to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), though lesser known.
• Govind Guru was arrested.

Second Bhil Agitation (1921–23)

• Led by Motilal Tejawat, deeply influenced by Gandhian ideas.
• He launched the Eki Movement, demanding land reforms and justice for Bhils oppressed by the Thakur landlords.
• He invoked Maharana Pratap’s name to inspire tribal pride and resistance.

8. Munda Ulgulan (1899–1900)

This is one of the most important tribal uprisings in Indian history, led by the legendary Birsa Munda.

Birsa’s Background

• Born on 15 November 1875 into a poor Munda family.
• Today, this date is observed as Janjatiya Gaurav Divas by the Government of India.
• Educated briefly in a mission school where he was converted to Christianity (renamed Birsa David).
• Later, under the influence of Vaishnavite preacher Anand Paure, he embraced Hindu traditions — purity, vegetarianism, sacred thread, opposition to cow slaughter.

Religious and Social Message

• By 1895, Birsa proclaimed himself Bhagwan (God), chosen to deliver his people from oppression.
• He founded a new faith, Birsait, which spread among Mundas, Oraons, and Santhals.
• Teachings included:
  • Abandon liquor,
  • Reject witchcraft,
  • Live a pure, disciplined life,
  • Unite against outsiders (dikus).

The Ulgulan (Great Tumult) – 1899–1900

• On Christmas Eve, 1899, Birsa launched a rebellion to establish Munda Raj.
• Called upon followers to destroy “Ravana” — i.e., the British, missionaries, zamindars, and moneylenders.
• Rebels, armed with bows, spears, axes, and swords, attacked:
  • Police stations,
  • Churches,
  • Property of landlords and moneylenders.
• They carried white flags, symbolising Birsa Raj.

Suppression and Death

• The British responded with brutal force.
• Birsa was captured in February 1900, and died in jail of cholera in June 1900 at just 25 years of age.

Impact of the Movement

1. Policy Changes
   • Government carried out land surveys and settlements to safeguard tribal land rights.
   • Passed:
     • Tenancy Act (1903) recognising the Khuntkatti (communal landholding) system,
     • Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908), prohibiting transfer of tribal land to non-tribals.
   • Abolished begar (forced labour) system.
2. Symbol of Resistance
   • Showed tribals could rise collectively against injustice.
   • Inspired later tribal movements, both social and political.
3. Cultural Legacy
   • Birsa became an enduring hero — remembered not just as a rebel but also as a religious and social reformer.

Perfect — now we reach the concluding phase of the tribal resistance story: its impact on colonial policy and the memory of unsung heroes like Tantia Bhil, who carried forward the flame of resistance. Let’s understand this:

Impact of the Tribal Movements

Although most tribal uprisings were brutally suppressed — often with great loss of life — they were not in vain. They left behind lasting consequences, both immediate and long-term.

1. Short-Term Outcomes

• Tribals often had to submit after bloody campaigns.
• Their lands, forests, and customs remained vulnerable to colonial interference.
• Many leaders were executed or imprisoned, movements scattered.

2. Policy Reactions by the British

Despite suppression, the sheer frequency and ferocity of tribal uprisings forced the colonial state to rethink. Some protective measures were introduced:

• Scheduled District Act (1874):
  • Recognised that ordinary British-Indian laws could not be applied in tribal areas.
  • Allowed special administration in “Scheduled Districts.”
• Government of India Act (1935):
  • Classified tribal regions as “Excluded Areas” and “Partially Excluded Areas.”
  • Direct administration by the Governor, with limited legislative interference.
  • Idea was to isolate tribals from mainstream politics — presented as “protection,” but it also kept them politically marginalised.

👉 In the long run, colonial policy institutionalised tribal isolation — rather than empowering them, it fenced them off as “separate.”

Unsung Hero: Tantia Bhil (1842–1889)

One of the most remarkable tribal leaders was Tantia Bhil, also lovingly remembered as Tantia Mama.

Background

• Born in 1842 in a Bhil tribal family in present-day Madhya Pradesh (Nagpur region).
• Grew up in a community long exploited by moneylenders, zamindars, and colonial policies.

Career of Rebellion

• Inspired by the repression following the Revolt of 1857, Tantia picked up arms.
• From 1878 to 1889, he led a twelve-year armed struggle against the British.
• His tactics:
  • Raiding government treasuries and wealth,
  • Redistributing it among the poor and needy — earning him immense popularity.
• His Robin Hood-like role made him a folk hero across central India.

Suppression and Martyrdom

• Captured by the British and lodged in Jabalpur Jail.
• After trial, he was hanged on 4 December 1889.
• Even international newspapers like the New York Times covered his execution, calling him the “Robin Hood of India.”

Larger Legacy of Tribal Movements

1. Assertion of Tribal Identity:
   • Movements helped tribals assert that they would not silently accept colonial exploitation.
   • Their uprisings became early expressions of anti-colonial resistance.
2. Influence on Colonial Law:
   • Laws like Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876), Chotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908), and the Scheduled District Act (1874) came directly as responses to tribal rebellions.
3. Integration into Freedom Struggle:
   • Later tribal revolts (like Rampa under Alluri Seetarama Raju, or Warli Adivasi Revolt of 1945–46) connected with Gandhian and Congress-led movements, showing that tribals were part of the national story of independence.
4. Inspiration for Future Generations:
   • Heroes like Birsa Munda, Tantia Bhil, Sidhu-Kanhu, and Alluri Seetarama Raju became enduring symbols — celebrated in folklore, novels, songs, and even modern government commemorations.

✅ So, in summary: Tribal movements may have been locally rooted, but together they form a nationwide saga of resistance. They forced the British to concede special laws, gave rise to legendary heroes, and ensured that tribal voices became an integral part of India’s long struggle for freedom.