Trends and Patterns in Internal and External Migration

Introduction: Migration – A Global Phenomenon

Migration today is not just an Indian issue; it’s a global phenomenon, much like how people across the world shift from one job to another or move from small towns to metro cities in search of better life.

With the expansion of transport and communication, migration has become deeply intertwined with urbanization and industrialization. Think of it this way: when cities grow and industries flourish, they attract people like magnets. And improved roads, mobile phones, and the internet have made it much easier for people to move.

India, being a large and diverse country, experiences both internal migration (within the country) and external migration (to and from foreign countries). Today, we’ll focus on internal migration, particularly in the Himalayan region.

Migration Pattern in the Himalayan Region

The Himalayas, though beautiful and rich in natural resources, are marked by rugged terrain, cold climate, and economic challenges. These physical and socio-economic conditions greatly influence migration patterns in this region.

Let’s understand it region-wise:

1. Rural to Urban Migration – The Dominant Trend

Across most parts of the Himalayas, rural to urban migration is the most noticeable pattern. This happens due to two forces:

✅ Push Factors:

Undulating (hilly) terrain makes agriculture and transportation difficult.
Cold climate limits agricultural productivity.
Poverty, unemployment, and lack of education act like daily obstacles.

Imagine living in a remote mountain village where schools shut down in winter and the nearest hospital is 20 km away—wouldn’t you consider moving?

✅ Pull Factors:

Cities offer better jobs, modern amenities, education, and the glamour of urban life.

2. Jammu & Kashmir (J&K)

Migration here is shaped not just by physical and economic factors, but also by socio-political tensions:

A large-scale migration of Kashmiri Pandits occurred in 1990 due to rising insurgency and targeted violence.
The revocation of Article 370 has altered governance, but debates continue on its long-term impact.
Many Kashmiris still relocate due to instability, while others seek better economic opportunities across India.

This type of migration isn’t just economic—it’s forced displacement due to insecurity and violence.

3. Himachal Pradesh

Here, the reasons are more economic and environmental:

Poor productivity of apple orchards, despite being a major crop.
A largely rural economy, with limited urban centers.

As a result, many people move to Chandigarh and Delhi in search of better opportunities.

4. Kumaon Himalayas (Uttarakhand)

An interesting pattern here is rural-to-rural migration, often overlooked in mainstream discussions.

After Partition, the Indian government resettled Sikh immigrants from Pakistan into the Tarai region of Uttarakhand.
This policy-led migration altered the region’s demographic makeup, giving it a new cultural and population character.

It’s like how a new colony is formed when a government builds housing for displaced people—it changes the population mix and even the local economy.

5. Eastern Himalayas

This region, comprising states like Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Assam, etc., has complex migration dynamics:

✅ Seasonal Migration:

Due to uneven development and social structure, many people migrate temporarily for work—seasonal migration.
Especially among tribal populations, displacement due to deforestation, external intrusions, and changing land use patterns lead to outmigration.

✅ Migration of Youth:

Due to lack of infrastructure (few schools, colleges), young people move to metros like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai for education.
Many stay back in these cities for jobs, causing “brain drain” from the Northeast.

Think of it as small towns training doctors and engineers who then settle permanently in big cities, rarely returning home.

✅ Political Unrest:

Groups like ULFA, demand for Bodoland, and other conflicts create a sense of insecurity.
This affects not just locals but also migrant laborers (e.g., from Bihar and Bengal), leading to mass migration out of the area.

✅ Social Consequences:

These regions now have dispersed, isolated settlements.
The proportion of elderly, children, and women increases, while working-age males decrease, disrupting demographic balance.

🔹 So what did we learn:

The migration trends in the Himalayas reveal a blend of environmental hardship, economic necessity, government policy, and political instability.

Each region—be it J&K, Himachal, Uttarakhand, or the Eastern Himalayas—has its unique story. But the common theme remains: People move when they feel pushed by hardship or pulled by opportunity.

In the broader context of Population Geography, understanding these patterns helps us assess the socio-economic dynamics, resource allocation, infrastructure planning, and even national security concerns in such strategically sensitive regions.

Migration Pattern in the Northern Ganga Plain

The Northern Ganga Plain is one of the most densely populated and agriculturally significant regions of India. It spans states like Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar, parts of Rajasthan, and extends towards Punjab and Haryana.

However, despite its fertility, the region shows both in-migration (people coming in) and out-migration (people leaving), depending on local conditions. Let’s break it down.

1. Thar Desert and Migration

Even though the Thar Desert is part of Rajasthan, its harsh terrain, limited water availability, and poor cultivable land push people to migrate.

People move from less favourable regions (like western Rajasthan) to more favourable ones (like eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, and UP).
It’s a classic “push” situation caused by environmental hardship.

2. Impact of the Green Revolution

In the 1960s, the Green Revolution transformed Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP into India’s breadbasket with:

High-yield variety seeds
Irrigation
Fertilizers
Mechanization

These advancements created a huge demand for agricultural labour, but these states didn’t have enough workers.

So what happened?

A massive influx of labour came from Eastern UP, Bihar, and Rajasthan—regions that were poor, underdeveloped, and had surplus population but few opportunities.

✅ This is a classic example of rural-to-rural migration—where people moved from rural areas of one state to the rural farms of another for better wages and living.

🔍 Think of it as farmers from a drought-hit village in Bihar going to work in the lush fields of Punjab where there’s water, machinery, and higher pay.

3. Urban Migration to Delhi

Delhi acts as a major urban magnet:

Every year, about 4 lakh people are added to Delhi’s population.
Out of this, 2–5 lakh are due to migration from neighbouring states—UP, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Bihar.

This creates urban overcrowding, leading to:
→ Strain on housing
→ Traffic congestion
→ Pressure on water, electricity, and other urban infrastructure

🧠 This is rural-to-urban migration driven by the pull of jobs, education, and lifestyle that Delhi offers.

4. Influence of Alluvial Morphology (Soil and Terrain)

The term “alluvial morphology” refers to the landscape shaped by river deposits, especially fertile soil brought by rivers like the Ganga.

UP and Bihar have extremely fertile alluvial soil, making them historically suitable for agriculture.
This made them early population centres, leading to high population density.

However, high population with limited economic growth leads to:

Unemployment
Resource strain
Hence, people migrate out in search of better opportunities.

✅ Additionally, UP also receives migrants from Nepal, due to its porous international border, adding further pressure.

5. Role of Kolkata

After Delhi, Kolkata is another major urban hub in this region:

It receives migrants from neighbouring states (like Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam).
It also sees illegal immigration from Bangladesh.

This migration is often informal or undocumented, which:

Increases security concerns
Facilitates cross-border smuggling and trafficking
Creates urban slums and congestion

So, while Kolkata is an economic centre, it also faces complex socio-political migration issues.

6. External Migration

Apart from internal migration, this region also witnesses outmigration to foreign countries, especially:

From Punjab to Canada, UK, Australia (mainly for economic and educational reasons)
From UP and Bihar to Gulf countries
Interestingly, some cross-border migration into Nepal also occurs from UP for small-scale business or settlement.

✅ Why is this important?

These external migrants send remittances (money back home), which:
- Supports families economically
- Boosts rural economies
- Helps reduce regional socio-economic inequalities

🔍 Think of it as someone working in Dubai sending money to build a house or pay for school back in Bihar—this redistributes wealth and improves living standards back home.

🔷 Now, let’s recap a bit:

The Northern Ganga Plain shows a complex pattern of both internal and external migration:

Environmental stress (like in Rajasthan)
Agricultural transformation (Green Revolution)
Urban magnets (like Delhi and Kolkata)
Demographic pressure in fertile but poor states (UP, Bihar)
International borders (Nepal and Bangladesh)
Global aspirations (migration to Canada, Gulf countries)

All of this shape the migration landscape of this region. Understanding this helps us interpret not just population movement, but also issues like urban planning, rural distress, and national security.

Migration Pattern in Peninsular India

Peninsular India shows a diverse migration landscape, involving:

Rural to urban migration
Urban to urban migration
Inter-state labour movement
External migration (abroad)

These patterns are shaped by regional disparities, economic opportunities, political issues (like Naxalism), and globalization.

1. Rural to Urban vs. Urban to Urban Migration

Migration in Peninsular India is not just from villages to cities, but also from small towns to large metros.

Rural to Urban Migration: Mainly driven by push factors like:
- Lack of jobs
- Poor infrastructure
- Drought-prone agriculture
Urban to Urban Migration: Driven by pull factors:
- People move from small towns with limited facilities to Class I cities (like Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai, Mumbai) offering better jobs, education, and healthcare.

🧠 This results in a phenomenon called “Step Migration”:

Example: A person moves from a village in Odisha → small town in AP → finally to Bengaluru.

This continuous loss of population from small towns to bigger cities leads to:

Rapid growth of metros
Shrinking development in smaller urban centres

🔹 2. Labour Migration to Mumbai & Gujarat

Urban-industrial pockets like Mumbai, Surat, Ahmedabad, Vadodara have a huge demand for cheap labour.

Where do they get it from?

🧲 Labour Catchment Areas:

From the east: Bihar, UP, Odisha
From the south: Andhra Pradesh (AP), Tamil Nadu (TN), parts of Kerala & Karnataka

Why this pattern?

These migrants are often unskilled or semi-skilled, moving for construction, textile, diamond polishing, port work, etc.
The sending regions have poor job opportunities while the receiving ones are industrial hubs.

🔍 Think of Mumbai’s construction workers or Gujarat’s textile workers—most come from the eastern or southern hinterlands.

3. Regional Disparities: Maharashtra vs. Naxalite Belt

Maharashtra, especially cities like Mumbai and Pune, have high per capita income and advanced infrastructure.

But just a few hundred kilometers away lie Naxal-affected states:

Bihar
Odisha
Jharkhand
Chhattisgarh

People from these regions often migrate due to poverty, violence, and lack of opportunities.

This highlights India’s regional economic inequality—one state’s prosperity becomes a magnet for its less developed neighbours.

4. IT Hubs and Brain Drain

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu have emerged as IT powerhouses, hosting cities like:

Bengaluru (Silicon Valley of India)
Hyderabad
Chennai

These cities see:

Urban to urban migration from other Indian cities/towns by IT professionals
External migration to USA, Canada, and Europe

This has led to the “Brain Drain” phenomenon:

Highly educated & skilled professionals migrate abroad for higher salaries, better research facilities, and quality of life
India loses talent it invested in training

📌 So, while urban centres are growing, some of the best talent is moving out, creating a vacuum in skilled manpower.

5. Kerala & Tamil Nadu: Migration to the Gulf

Kerala and Tamil Nadu have long-standing ties with the Gulf countries (UAE, Saudi, Qatar):

Migrants are often skilled/semi-skilled workers:
- Nurses, electricians, drivers, carpenters, teachers
This migration brings back huge remittances to home states
It has helped build better housing, education, and health facilities in Kerala and TN

🧠 This is an example of “external migration benefiting local development”.

But it also has social costs—family separation, cultural changes, and vulnerability to exploitation abroad.

6. Naxalism-Induced Migration

The Naxalite conflict in regions like:

Eastern Odisha
Southern West Bengal
Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand
Parts of Andhra Pradesh

…has created internal displacement.

Many villagers and tribals are forced to leave due to violence, land acquisition, and conflict between Naxals and security forces.
These people often migrate to western states or settle in slums of cities like Nagpur, Pune, Hyderabad.

⚠️ This is involuntary migration—not for opportunity, but due to threats to life and livelihood.

Conclusion

Migration in Peninsular India reflects both economic dynamism and structural inequalities:

Cities like Bengaluru, Mumbai, and Hyderabad are magnets for opportunity, but also witness overcrowding.
Step migration is common—from villages to towns to metros.
Labour movement, brain drain, and Gulf migration show how migration can reshape societies—economically, socially, and demographically.
Naxalism-induced displacement reminds us that migration isn’t always voluntary or positive.

Understanding these patterns helps us frame better urban policies, rural development strategies, and labour laws

Migration Patterns in the Coastal Plains

The coastal plains of India, both on the eastern and western coasts, show a distinct migration pattern, influenced by:

Plantation economies
Seasonal labour demand
Fishing-based livelihood
Historical external migration

Let’s understand this:

1. Plantation-Based Seasonal Labour Migration

The warm, humid climate and fertile alluvial soil of coastal regions support cash crops like:

Coconut & Cashew in the Malabar Coast (Kerala)
Jute in the Hugli Basin (West Bengal)
Tobacco in Andhra Pradesh

These crops require:

Intensive manual labour
Time-bound harvesting seasons

🧠 Hence, they attract seasonal labour migrants—mostly from neighboring districts or states.

For example:

Cashew workers move to Kerala from Karnataka & Tamil Nadu
Tobacco workers move to coastal AP from interior Telangana

🔁 These are temporary, cyclical migrations, where workers return home after the harvest season.

2. Fisheries: Livelihood-Based In-Migration

Fishing is a dominant economic activity along India’s long coastline.

It generates employment in:
- Marine fishing
- Fish processing
- Boat-building
- Port handling

⚓ Cities like Kochi, Visakhapatnam, Mangalore, and Chennai have grown as fishing hubs.

This sector attracts:

In-migration from nearby inland villages
In some cases, inter-state migration from underdeveloped areas

📌 Unlike agriculture, fishing offers more regular income, especially with the development of cold chains and export industries.

3. External Migration to Southeast Asia (Historical Trend)

This is a lesser-known but important aspect of coastal migration history.

During the colonial era, British and European powers moved Indian labourers to work in tea, rubber, and sugar plantations in Southeast Asia:

Tamil labourers were taken from Coromandel Coast (TN) to:
- Sri Lanka
- Malaysia
- Singapore
Bengali and Odia migrants were sent to:
- Burma (now Myanmar)

🚢 These were part of the indentured labour system, often called “Girmitiyas” (a distorted version of the word “agreement”).

Even today:

Many Indian-origin communities in Malaysia, Fiji, and Mauritius trace their roots to these coastal migrations.

📌 These are examples of external, colonial-era migration based on plantation economy demand—not voluntary but structured by colonial exploitation.

🔷 Conclusion

The coastal plains of India reflect a blend of seasonal, occupational, and historical migration patterns:

Plantation crops like cashew, jute, and tobacco drive seasonal rural-to-rural migration
Fishing industry pulls people from interior regions to the coast
Colonial legacies of external migration shaped Indian diaspora in Southeast Asia

🌊 Coastal migration is deeply tied to livelihoods, resource-based economy, and historical context—making it a unique sub-theme in Indian migration geography.

Now, Let’s summarise

Migration Patterns in India – Regional Summary Table

Region	Type of Migration	Key Drivers / Factors
Himalayas	Mostly Rural → Urban, some Rural → Rural	– Push: Harsh climate, poor infra, low productivity – Pull: Urban allure, jobs, education – Special: Conflict in J&K, tribal displacement in NE
Northern Ganga Plain	Rural → Rural, Rural → Urban, External	– Green Revolution → Labour migration to Punjab/Haryana – Urban pull: Delhi, Kolkata – Nepal & Bangladesh migrants
Peninsular India	Rural → Urban, Urban → Urban, External	– Step migration from villages → towns → big cities – IT hubs (Hyd, Blr, Chennai) → Brain drain – Gulf migration from Kerala & TN
Coastal Plains	Seasonal, Occupational, External (Historical)	– Plantation (coconut, jute, tobacco) labour – Fisheries-related migration – Colonial-era migration to SE Asia

🔁 Also Remember:

External Migration:
- Punjab → Canada
- UP, Bihar → Nepal
- South India → Gulf, SE Asia
Push Factors: Poverty, unemployment, environmental stress, political conflict, Naxalism
Pull Factors: Jobs, urban amenities, education, better livelihood