Environmental Impact Assessment

What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)?

At its core, EIA is a decision-support tool.

👉 Simple idea:
Before we say “Yes, go ahead” to a development project, we must first ask:

• What damage can it cause to the environment?
• Can that damage be reduced or managed?

Formally, EIA predicts the likely environmental impacts of proposed developmental activities and:

• Assesses risks
• Suggests mitigation strategies
• Ensures environmental management and monitoring

📌 UPSC takeaway:
EIA does not stop development; it guides development towards sustainability.

Evolution of EIA in India

(a) Early Phase (1976–1994)

• Introduced in 1976–77, initially only for river valley projects
• Gradually extended to other sectors
• Till 1994, environmental clearance (EC) was:
  • Merely an administrative decision
  • Had no legislative backing

This meant weak enforcement.

(b) Legal Backing in 1994

In 1994, under the Environment (Protection) Act, the Ministry of Environment and Forests made Environmental Clearance mandatory through an EIA Notification.

• EC became compulsory for:
  • New projects
  • Expansion
  • Modernisation

👉 This was a paradigm shift: environment moved from advisory to mandatory compliance.

Current Status of EIA in India

• EIA is mandatory for around 30 categories of projects
• EC is granted only after:
  • EIA study
  • Public consultation
  • Expert appraisal

The final “go-ahead” is given by the Impact Assessment Agency within the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).

Core Components of EIA

It can be explained as three pillars:

1. Risk Assessment
2. Environmental Management
3. Post-project Monitoring

EIA is not a one-time document, but a continuous cycle.

Classification of Projects Requiring EIA

To ensure scientific and multidisciplinary appraisal, expert committees are formed for sectors like:

1. Mining Projects
2. Industrial Projects
3. Thermal Power Projects
4. River Valley, Multipurpose, Irrigation & Hydroelectric Projects
5. Infrastructure & Miscellaneous Projects
6. Nuclear Power Projects

📌 Each sector has specialised experts, because environmental impacts differ across sectors.

EIA Process and Procedures

The EIA process is cyclical, not linear. Let us understand this:

(1) Screening

• Determines whether a project needs EIA
• Based on:
  • Size
  • Location
  • Investment
  • Type of activity

(2) Scoping

• Identifies:
  • Key impacts
  • Impact zones
  • Monitoring needs
• Decides what to study and what to ignore

(3) Collection of Baseline Data

• Baseline data = existing environmental status
• Covers:
  • Air
  • Water
  • Soil
  • Biodiversity
  • Socio-economic conditions

📌 Without baseline data, impact prediction is meaningless.

(4) Impact Prediction

• Impacts are assessed as:
• Positive / Negative
• Reversible / Irreversible
• Temporary / Permanent

(5) Mitigation Measures

• Measures to → Prevent, Minimise, Compensate → for Environment Impacts.

(6) Public Hearing

• Local communities and environmental groups are consulted
• Reflects democratic environmental governance

(7) Decision-Making

• Appraisal Authority evaluates:
  • EIA report
  • Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
• Decision normally within 90 days, if data is complete

(8) Monitoring & EMP Implementation

• Ensures conditions of clearance are actually followed

(9) Risk Assessment

• Includes:
  • Hazard identification
  • Probability analysis
  • Accident preparedness

Environment Management Plan (EMP)

EMP is the action-oriented part of EIA.

It includes:

• Pollution control measures
• Waste management
• Rehabilitation & resettlement (R&R)
• Monitoring framework

👉 Think of EIA as diagnosis, EMP as treatment.

Environmental Appraisal

• Conducted by MoEFCC Appraisal Committees
• Inputs may be taken from:
  • Experts
  • Investors
  • Technical agencies

EC is conditional, not unconditional.

Special Case: EIA of Coastal Areas

• Coastal States/UTs prepare Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs)
• Prepared under CRZ Notifications
• Approved by MoEFCC

Single Window Clearance

If a project needs:

• Environmental Clearance (EC)
• Forest Clearance under Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

👉 Both are processed simultaneously, not sequentially.

📌 Single Window = EC + Forestry Clearance

Main Participants in the EIA Process

1. Project Proponent
2. Environmental Consultants
3. SPCBs / PCCs
4. Public
5. Impact Assessment Agency

EIA is thus multi-stakeholder governance, not bureaucratic monopoly.

Benefits of EIA

• Integrates environment with development
• Cost-effective in reducing long-term damage
• Promotes:
  • Mitigation
  • Sustainable resource use
  • Ecosystem resilience

Shortcomings of EIA (Critical Analysis)

(a) Applicability Issues

• Many impactful projects escape EIA due to:
  • Threshold limits
  • Exemptions

(b) Weak Expert Committees

• Lack of:
  • Ecologists
  • Wildlife experts
  • Anthropologists
  • Social scientists

(c) Public Hearing Problems

• Conducted too late
• Exemptions for many projects
• Poor access to documents
• Indigenous knowledge ignored

(d) Poor Quality of EIA Reports

• Single-season data
• Incomplete or false data
• Overly technical language

(e) Conflict of Interest

• Project proponent funds EIA
• Consultants lack independent accreditation

Recommendations to Improve EIA

• Independent EIA Authority
• Sector-wide EIAs
• Full transparency
• Universal applicability
• Strong public participation
• Independent consultants
• Expert-driven appraisal committees
• Automatic clearance withdrawal for violations

EIA Notification 2006: Key Changes

The EIA Notification decentralised EC.

Project Categories:

1. Category A – National-level appraisal
2. Category B – State-level appraisal

Category B further divided into:

• B1 → EIA mandatory
• B2 → No EIA / EC

Four Stages after 2006:

1. Screening
2. Scoping
3. Public Hearing
4. Appraisal

Controversial Amendments

(a) COVID-era Amendment (Bulk Drugs)

• Bulk drugs downgraded to B2
• Exempted from:
  • EIA
  • Public consultation

(b) Oil & Gas Exploration (2019)

• Onshore & offshore exploration moved to B2
• Criticism:
  • Marine ecosystem damage
  • Seismic survey impacts
  • Oil spill risks

Draft EIA 2020 Notification (Expired but Influential)

Proposed:

• Prior EC vs Environmental Permission (EP)
• Ex-post facto clearances
• Massive exemptions from EC & public consultation

Key Issues:

1. Post-facto clearance (against SC rulings)
2. Reduced public participation
3. Extended EC validity (up to 50 years for mining)

Rules Similar to Draft EIA 2020 (Through Notifications)

Even after expiry:

• Border highway projects exempted from EC
• Fast-tracked forest clearances in Maoist & border areas
• EC validity extended:
  • 13 yrs (hydropower)
  • 15 yrs (nuclear)
  • 50 yrs (mining)
• Appraisal powers delegated to states
• Move towards single-window clearance

Conclusion

👉 EIA is the battleground between development and environment.

• Strong EIA = Sustainable development
• Weak EIA = Irreversible ecological loss

UPSC does not expect emotional answers, but balanced, constitutional, and analytical responses — exactly what this topic offers.