British Rule in Maratha State UPSC

The Marathas emerged from the 18th century as one of the most powerful Indian confederacies. But their defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was a major blow. The sudden loss of men, resources, and prestige created cracks in their political unity.

Even after recovering much of their strength under Peshwa Madhav Rao I, his death in 1772 removed the one leader capable of holding the Maratha Confederacy together. Rival chiefs began competing for power — and the British saw this as a perfect opening.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)

The Succession Crisis

In 1775, the throne of the Peshwa was disputed:

Madhav Rao II (Sawai Madhav Rao) – an infant Peshwa supported by Nana Fadnavis and other chiefs.
Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) – uncle of the late Madhav Rao I, who wanted to be Peshwa himself.

Unable to win over the Maratha chiefs, Raghunath Rao turned to the British for military help.

Treaty of Surat (1775)

The British in Bombay Presidency, eager to take advantage, signed a deal with Raghunath Rao:

Raghunath Rao would cede Bassein and Salsette and part of the revenues from Bharuch and Surat.
In return, the British would give him 2,500 troops.

But there was a problem — Governor-General Warren Hastings in Calcutta did not approve of direct conflict with the Marathas.

Treaty of Purandhar (1776)

Hastings sent Colonel Upton to negotiate with Nana Fadnavis:

Madhav Rao II accepted as the rightful Peshwa.
British withdrew support to Raghunath Rao.
Raghunath Rao given a pension of ₹25,000/month from the Peshwa government.
British kept Salsette but had to pay a war indemnity.

Convention of Wadgaon (1779)

The Bombay officials, unhappy with Purandhar, restarted the war.

In 1779, the Marathas decisively defeated the British at Talegaon-Wadgaon (near Pune).
The British were forced to sign the Convention of Wadgaon:
- Give up all territories acquired since 1773.
- Abandon Raghunath Rao’s cause.

Warren Hastings rejected this agreement, saying the Bombay Council had no authority to sign it, and sent Colonel Goddard to resume the war.

Final Phase of the War

British forces under Goddard scored several victories and even captured Ahmedabad (1780).
Still, neither side could fully dominate.
With Mahadji Scindia mediating, peace came in the Treaty of Salbai (1782).

Treaty of Salbai (1782)

Madhav Rao II recognised as Peshwa.
Raghunath Rao pensioned off.
British possession of Salsette confirmed.
All other captured territories restored — Bassein returned to the Marathas.
Marathas promised to help the British against Haidar Ali of Mysore.

Significance

Gave the British 20 years of peace with the Marathas — time they used to consolidate their hold over Bengal Presidency.
Prevented a united front of Indian powers against them.
Allowed the British to focus on Mysore and other rivals without Maratha interference.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805)

Background – The Last Major Indian Power

By the end of the 18th century, Tipu Sultan’s fall (1799) had removed Mysore as a major challenger to British dominance. The Marathas now stood as the last significant Indian power outside Company control.

Governor-General Lord Richard Wellesley saw them as the final obstacle to British supremacy and began offering Subsidiary Alliances to the Peshwa and Sindhia. For decades, Nana Fadnavis had kept the Maratha Confederacy united and resisted such deals. His death in 1800 removed that barrier.

Maratha Civil War – The British Opening

Soon after Nana’s death, internal rivalries deepened:

Yashwant Rao Holkar vs Daulat Rao Sindhia and Peshwa Baji Rao II.
On 25 October 1802, Holkar crushed the combined forces of the Peshwa and Sindhia at Pune.

The Peshwa, fleeing in panic, sought British protection — a move that would permanently alter Maratha sovereignty.

Treaty of Bassein (31 December 1802)

Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted the Subsidiary Alliance:

A permanent British force of 6,000 infantry for his protection.
Cession of territory worth ₹26 lakh annual revenue.
British control over his foreign policy and arbitration in disputes with the Nizam and Gaikwad.
Prohibition on employing Europeans without British permission.

To the Maratha chiefs, this treaty was a national humiliation, effectively making the Peshwa a British puppet.

The War Begins

Outraged by the Treaty of Bassein, Daulat Rao Sindhia and Raghuji Bhonsle II (of Nagpur) joined forces against the British. Wellesley seized the chance and declared war in August 1803.

Campaigns and Key Treaties

Against the Bhonsle – Treaty of Deogaon (December 1803)

Arthur Wellesley defeated Sindhia and Bhonsle near Aurangabad, then invaded Bhonsle territory.
Terms:
- Ceded Balasore and Cuttack (Orissa) to the Company.
- Accepted the Subsidiary Alliance.

Against the Sindhia – Treaty of Surji-Arjunagaon (30 December 1803)

In the north, Lord Lake captured Delhi, taking Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II under British protection.
British gained:
- Ganga–Yamuna Doab, Delhi–Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, and districts in Gujarat.
Sindhia accepted a British Resident at his court.

Treaty of Burhanpur (27 February 1804)

Sindhia formally entered the Subsidiary Alliance.

The Holkar Episode – Treaty of Rajghat (1805–06)

Yashwant Rao Holkar, enemy of Sindhia, had stayed aloof during the war. But after Sindhia and Bhonsle’s defeat, the British turned on him.

Holkar proved difficult to defeat, and the war became costly.
British shareholders in London began opposing Wellesley’s expensive expansionism.
Lord Wellesley was recalled in 1805.
Peace made at Rajghat (December 1805, ratified January 1806):
- Holkar regained most of his territories.

Results of the War

Sindhia and Bhonsle became subsidiary allies — ceded territory, accepted Residents, and gave up the right to employ Europeans.
British gained Orissa coast and the Ganga–Yamuna Doab, cementing their control over north India.
The Peshwa became a complete puppet.

Maratha Treaties at a Glance

Maratha Power	Treaty	Year
Peshwa Baji Rao II	Treaty of Bassein	1802
Bhonsle (Nagpur)	Treaty of Deogaon	1803
Sindhia (Gwalior)	Treaty of Surji-Arjunagaon	1803
Sindhia	Treaty of Burhanpur	1804
Holkar (Indore)	Treaty of Rajghat	1805–06

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1819) – The Last Stand

When Peshwa Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802), he believed British military support would help him dominate his Maratha feudatories. But he soon realised the truth — the treaty had stripped him of authority and reduced him to a British-dependent ruler.

Over the next decade, his relations with the Company steadily worsened, with two major flashpoints pushing the situation towards open conflict.

Two Key Incidents Before the War

The Southern Jagirdars Issue (1812)
- The Peshwa had long wanted to use the Subsidiary Force to discipline rebellious jagirdars in the south.
- But instead, the British signed the Treaty of Pandharpur (1812), offering these jagirdars protection from the Peshwa.
- This undermined his authority over his own subjects.
The Gangadhar Shastri Murder (1815)
- On British advice, the Gaekwad of Baroda sent his minister, Gangadhar Shastri, to negotiate with the Peshwa.
- On his return journey, Shastri was murdered at Nasik, allegedly on the orders of Trimbakji, the Peshwa’s minister.
- The British demanded Trimbakji’s custody; the Peshwa handed him over, but he escaped from prison.
- The British Resident accused the Peshwa of conspiracy and recommended decisive action.

Treaty of Poona (13 June 1817)

Governor-General Lord Hastings forced the Peshwa to:

Renounce his claim to be head of the Maratha Confederacy.
Accept further restrictions on his independence.

This treaty deepened the Peshwa’s resentment — he now openly sought to throw off British control.

Outbreak of War

On 5 November 1817, the Peshwa attacked the British Residency in Poona. Almost simultaneously:

Appa Sahib of Nagpur attacked the Residency there.
Madhav Rao Holkar prepared for war.

Lord Hastings responded quickly, and the British forces defeated the armies of the Peshwa, Bhonsle, and Holkar in a series of campaigns.

British Triumph in 1818

The year 1818 marked the complete destruction of Maratha political power:

The Peshwaship was abolished.
Baji Rao II was sent to Bithur near Kanpur with an annual pension of ₹8 lakh.
His territories were annexed to form an enlarged Bombay Presidency.
A small Kingdom of Satara was carved out for Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji — but as a dependent of the British.

All Maratha chiefs — Sindhia, Holkar, Bhonsle — eventually accepted Subsidiary Alliance, formally recognising British suzerainty.

Pratap Singh Bhosale and the End of Satara

Pratap Singh Bhosale ruled Satara from 1808 to 1839.
In 1839, the British dethroned him and sent him to Kashi.
His brother Appa Saheb (Shahaji) took over but died without a natural heir in 1848.
The British refused to recognise his adopted successor, invoking the Doctrine of Lapse, and annexed Satara to the Bombay Presidency.

Significance of the Third Anglo-Maratha War

End of Maratha sovereignty and the Peshwaship.
The Marathas, once the strongest Indian power, reduced to fragmented, dependent states.
Cleared the last major Indian obstacle to British supremacy before 1857.
Consolidated the Bombay Presidency as a core British territory.

Why the Marathas Lost to the British

The Maratha Confederacy, which had once replaced the Mughals as the dominant power in India, was completely broken by 1819 after the three Anglo-Maratha Wars. This was not just because of British strength, but also due to deep flaws in Maratha politics, economy, and strategy.

Key Reasons for Defeat

Lack of Capable Leadership
- The early Peshwas — like Baji Rao I — had vision and military genius.
- The later leaders, especially Baji Rao II, were indecisive, mistrustful, and politically short-sighted.
- They failed to unite the Maratha sardars in times of crisis.
Rise of Powerful and Independent Chiefs
- The Maratha Confederacy was essentially a loose alliance of strong families — Sindhia, Holkar, Bhonsle, Gaekwad — who became semi-independent.
- They often acted in self-interest, even joining hands with enemies when it suited them.
Economic Weakness
- The Maratha economy depended heavily on Chauth and Sardeshmukhi (taxes collected from other states) rather than internal development.
- There was little investment in trade, industry, or infrastructure.
Military Decline
- The Marathas failed to modernise their armies in terms of discipline, artillery, and training, unlike the British who used European methods and technology.
Internal Disunity and Bitterness
- Rivalries between Maratha chiefs meant there was rarely a united front against the British.
- The Anglo-Maratha Wars often saw one Maratha faction fighting alongside the British against another.
Poor Relations with Other Indian Powers
- The Marathas had alienated many princes and Nawabs through their expansionist and revenue-hungry policies.
- This meant they could not form a strong anti-British alliance like Mysore attempted under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan.
Misreading British Strength
- They underestimated the political skill, diplomacy, and military discipline of the British.
- Failed to see that the Company’s power came from a combination of Indian revenues, modern weaponry, and careful alliance-building.
Weak Administration Outside Maharashtra
- Conquered territories were ruled with a focus on revenue extraction, not on integrating or winning the loyalty of the local population.
Overreliance on Force
- Their political control depended more on military pressure than on good governance. Once their military was defeated, their authority collapsed quickly.
Neglect of Science and Technology
- Unlike the British, they made no significant effort to develop modern military industry, navigation, or administrative systems.

Anglo-Maratha Wars – Treaties Recap

War	Treaties
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)	• Treaty of Surat (1775) • Treaty of Purandhar (1776) • Treaty of Salbai (1782)
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)	• Treaty of Bassein (1802) • Treaty of Surji-Arjunagaon (1803) • Treaty of Rajghat (1806)
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19)	– (Ended with annexations and abolition of Peshwaship)

The Final Lesson

The Maratha downfall was not inevitable — they had resources, territory, and warrior tradition. But political disunity, short-term thinking, and failure to modernise allowed the British to apply a policy of divide and rule with deadly effectiveness.

By 1819, the last obstacle to British supremacy in India had been removed, and the stage was set for a century of colonial rule until 1947.

Consolidation of British Rule in the Maratha State