Famine

What is Famine? – The Big Picture

Imagine a society where food suddenly becomes scarce. Not for a day or two—but for months. People don’t get enough to eat, they fall sick, diseases spread, and eventually, many die. This situation is what we call a famine.

Technically, famine is a widespread scarcity of food caused by multiple factors—such as war, inflation, crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies.

Famine is not just about hunger—it brings a package of malnutrition, starvation, epidemics, and eventually, mass mortality. It’s not just an economic crisis, but a humanitarian catastrophe.

A Historical Phenomenon

• Every continent where humans live has faced famines.
• In the 19th and 20th centuries, the worst-hit regions were:
  • South and Southeast Asia
  • Eastern and Central Europe
• Since the 2000s, global famine deaths have reduced significantly—but not disappeared.

Famine Today: The African Case

• Since 2010, Sub-Saharan Africa has faced the worst famine conditions.
• As per UN reports in 2017, over 20 million people were at risk in South Sudan, Somalia, Nigeria, and Yemen.
• Armed conflict has disrupted food distribution.
• Most international food aid today is directed toward Africa.

Understanding the Causes of Famine

Food Availability Decline (FAD) Theory

Earlier, till 1951, famines were believed to be caused by Food Availability Decline. In simple words, when there isn’t enough food, famine follows.

But this idea had a major flaw—if food was short, why did only the poor die while the rich survived? That question opened the door to a deeper analysis.

Amartya Sen’s Contribution: Failure of Exchange Entitlements (FEE)

Amartya Sen revolutionized our understanding of famine with his theory of Failure of Exchange Entitlements (FEE), introduced in his book Poverty and Famines.

He said: “Famine is not always due to a lack of food, but due to people being unable to access it.”

• For example, an agricultural laborer might lose his job during a crisis.
• If he can’t exchange his labour for wages, and hence can’t buy rice, he starves—even if rice is available in the market.
• So, famine is about economic access, not just physical availability.

Political Factors – The Role of Democracy

Sen further argued that famines don’t occur in functioning democracies. His example? The Bengal Famine of 1943, which happened under British colonial rule—with no democratic checks and poor administrative response.

However, not everyone agrees:

• Olivier Rubin challenged Sen, saying democracy is not a magic cure for famine. He pointed to post-independence famines in India, Niger, and Malawi, where democratic setups still failed to prevent hunger-related deaths.
• But Andrew Banik supports Sen’s view, highlighting that while democracy prevents large famines, it doesn’t necessarily stop chronic hunger or starvation, which he calls a “silent emergency“.

A report by FEWSNET strongly states:

“Famines are not natural phenomena—they are catastrophic political failures.”

Malthusian Explanation: Climate and Population Pressure

Thomas Malthus, in his famous Essay on the Principle of Population, gave a biological explanation:

• Populations grow faster than food supply.
• When a region exceeds its carrying capacity, famine strikes.

But modern scholars like Alex de Waal argue otherwise:

• Famines in the last 150 years are less about nature and more about politics—wars, poor governance, and neglect.

However, climate still plays a role:

• Droughts, crop failures, epidemics, changing weather, and even volcanic eruptions have historically triggered famines.
• Example: The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia caused a global crop failure, leading to the worst famine of the 19th century.

State-Sponsored Famines – When Government Itself is the Culprit

Case Studies:

(a) The Soviet Union: Holodomor in Ukraine (1932–33)

• Under Stalin, forced collectivization led to the Holodomor.
• Grain quotas were forcefully extracted; peasants starved.
• Death toll: 2.4 to 7.5 million.
• The Soviet regime denied the famine and even refused foreign aid.

(b) China: Great Leap Forward (1958–1962)

• Mao Zedong launched an aggressive industrial campaign.
• Agriculture was forcibly collectivized; peasants had no grain.
• Government denied the problem and continued grain exports.
• Estimated 20 to 45 million people died—deadliest famine in human history.

(c) North Korea (1990s), Zimbabwe (2000s), Yemen (2010s)

• In these cases, government policies, wars, or blockades led to famine.
• Example: Yemen’s famine was triggered by a blockade during the Saudi-led intervention.
• Contrasting case: Botswana—a democracy that avoided famine despite food shortage.

Conclusion: What Causes Famines?

Famine is a complex interplay of natural, economic, and political factors.

Classical View (Pre-1951)	Modern Understanding
Food shortage causes famine	Economic access (Sen)
Nature and overpopulation	Political failure, war
Malthusian theory	Governance, democracy

Today, famine is less about nature and more about governance failure, inequality, and conflict. Food might be available, but access is the real challenge.

Understanding the Effects of Famine

Famine isn’t just about lack of food. It creates a chain reaction that affects the entire structure of society—health, population, gender relations, and long-term development.

🔁 General Impact

• When famine strikes, food scarcity becomes so intense that basic nutritional needs aren’t met.
• This creates a fertile ground for illnesses and epidemics. Why?
  • Malnutrition weakens immunity.
  • Lack of clean water and food causes diseases to spread.
• Health care services, already weak in developing countries, collapse under pressure. This escalates mortality rates.

👨‍👩‍👧 Gender Bias in Famine: A Misplaced Preference

• In many traditional societies, parents favor boys over girls, especially during crises.
  • The logic? Boys are often seen as future breadwinners.
• BUT — famine records show a counterintuitive reality:
  • More males die than females during famine.
  • Why?
    • Males have higher caloric needs and less biological adaptability under stress.
    • Females tend to be more flexible—in nutrition use, body metabolism, and survival strategies.

👶 Lower Fertility: A Natural Population Check?

• One immediate impact of famine is decline in fertility rates.
  • Poor families delay childbirth.
  • Why bring a child into a world where there’s no food, no health care?
• Example:
  • In China’s 1959–61 famine, fertility dropped from 5.6 to 3.06 births per woman.
• But here’s an important insight:
  • After famines end, birth rates bounce back sharply, contradicting Malthusian theory which predicted permanent population control through famine.

💉 Anemia and Long-Term Developmental Damage

Let’s now talk about anemia, one of famine’s silent killers—especially for infants and expecting mothers.

• Anemia = lack of red blood cells or hemoglobin → leads to fatigue, weakness, stunted growth.
• Long-term studies (like from China’s 1959–61 famine) show:
  • People exposed to famine were shorter, less educated, earned less, and had lower labor supply.
  • Their physical and cognitive development was stunted due to poor nutrition during childhood.
• Infants born during famine years often suffer:
  • Low height and weight
  • Reduced brain development
  • Poor academic performance

🔚 Summary

So, the effects of famine go far beyond just hunger:

1. It increases disease and mortality.
2. It exposes and even reverses gender biases.
3. It temporarily suppresses fertility but doesn’t reduce population in the long run.
4. It leaves deep scars on future generations—physically, mentally, and economically.

Famine is not just an event; it is a long-term developmental crisis.

Timeline of Major Famines (1900–Present)

Let’s understand more than a century of some of the worst famines in modern history—most triggered not just by natural disasters, but also by wars, political mismanagement, and human indifference.

🌍 Early 20th Century Famines

• 1921–22 | Soviet Union
  • One of the first large-scale famines post-Russian Revolution.
  • Deaths: 9 million.
  • Triggered by civil war, drought, and policy failures.
• 1927 | Northwest China
  • Deaths: 3–6 million.
  • Chronic food shortages in a politically unstable China.
• 1929 | Hunan Province, China
  • Deaths: 2 million.
  • Recurring droughts and lack of state capacity.

🔥 1930s: Political Famines

• 1932–33 | Soviet Union (Ukraine – Holodomor)
  • Deaths: 7–8 million.
  • Result of Stalin’s forced collectivization—widely seen as a man-made famine.

🌪️ 1940s: War and Famine

• 1943 | Henan, China
  • Deaths: 3–5 million.
  • Combination of war, flood, and drought during WWII.
• 1943 | Bengal, India
  • Deaths: 2.1–3 million.
  • Colonial mismanagement, hoarding, and wartime inflation exacerbated natural scarcity.
• 1946–47 | Soviet Union
  • Deaths: 2 million.
  • Post-WWII chaos and poor harvests again crippled the Soviet food system.

⚠️ Mid-Century Famine Disasters

• 1959–61 | China (Great Leap Forward Famine)
  • Deaths: 15–30 million.
  • Largest recorded famine in human history.
  • Caused by Mao’s disastrous agricultural policies and denial of famine’s existence.

📉 1970s: Newly Independent States Struggle

• 1974 | Bangladesh
  • Deaths: 1.5 million.
  • A young nation hit by floods, inflation, and political instability.
• 1975–79 | Cambodia (Khmer Rouge era)
  • Deaths: 1.5–2 million.
  • Genocide and agricultural ruin under Pol Pot’s regime.

🆘 1980s–90s: African & Asian Famines

• 1984–85 | Ethiopia
  • Deaths: ~1 million, affecting over 8 million.
  • Drought + civil war + poor governance.
  • Sparked global media attention and aid efforts (e.g., Live Aid).
• 1991–93 | Somalia
  • Affected: 3+ million.
  • Famine caused by state collapse, warlords, and UN delays.
• 1995–99 | North Korea
  • Deaths: 2.5 million.
  • Known as the “Arduous March”, this was due to floods, state failure, and isolation.

🌍 2000s–2010s: Modern-Day Famines

• 1998–2011 | Sudan, Darfur, South Sudan
  • Affected: 2+ million.
  • Longest multi-decade crisis due to war, displacement, and food disruption.
• 2008 | Somalia (UN’s First Official Famine Declaration)
  • Affected: 3.7 million.
  • Civil war + drought + aid blockages.
• July 20, 2011 | Somalia
  • UN declares famine again in southern Somalia.
• Sept 5, 2011 | Somalia
  • Famine spreads; 750,000 at risk of imminent starvation.
• May 2, 2013 | UN report
  • 260,000 people died (Oct 2010–Apr 2012).
  • UN admits global response was too late.
• Feb 20, 2017 | South Sudan
  • Famine declared amid civil war.
  • 100,000 facing starvation, 4.9 million in urgent need—40% of the population.

🧠 Key Takeaways

• Most famines post-1900 were not just about lack of rain but about political decisions, war, and governance failure.
• Some of the worst famines occurred under authoritarian regimes (USSR, China, North Korea).
• Africa remains famine-prone due to recurring conflict and climate vulnerability.
• UN’s late recognition of famine often results in avoidable loss of life.

Famines in India: A Historical Overview

Famine has been a painful and persistent feature in the Indian subcontinent, deeply shaping its demography, economy, and governance—especially under British rule.

🏴‍☠️ Colonial Legacy: Famines During British Rule

• Recurrent Tragedies:
  India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh experienced frequent famines, most severe during British rule. These were not just natural calamities but often man-made disasters, worsened by colonial policies.
• Shocking Toll:
  Over 60 million deaths occurred due to famines from the 18th to early 20th centuries, substantially impacting population growth.
• Climate Dependence:
  Indian agriculture relies heavily on the southwest monsoon. A failed monsoon often led to crop failure—and hence, famine.
• Major Historical Famines:
  • 1770 Bengal Famine – Triggered by drought and British tax policies.
  • 1783-84 Chalisa Famine – Linked to El Niño.
  • 1791-92 Doji Bara (Skull) Famine – Caused by El Niño-induced drought.
  • 1876-78 Great Famine (Madras Famine) – Due to severe drought in South India.
  • 1943 Bengal Famine – Worst in 20th-century British India, during WWII; caused by policy failures, hoarding, and war-related mismanagement.
• Impact on Vulnerable Groups:
  • The worst-hit were agricultural laborers and rural artisans.
  • Even cultivators were not spared in major famines.

🚂 Paradox of Railways

• Built mainly to export food grains, British railways worsened famines by:
  • Moving grain away from affected areas.
  • Ignoring local needs in favor of trade profits.
• Yet ironically, by the early 20th century, the expanded rail network helped mitigate famine spread, enabling faster relief in peacetime.

📜 Policy and Relief Evolution

• 1883 Famine Codes: Early administrative steps to systematically deal with famine.
• Post-Independence reforms, improved governance, and emergency relief systems helped avert future large-scale famines.
• Key Shift: After the 1943 Bengal famine, India did not witness any major famine due to:
  • Institutionalized food relief.
  • Green Revolution (especially post-1960s).
  • Democratic governance and media raising alarms early.

🇮🇳 Famines in Independent India

• 1966 Bihar Famine:
  A small-scale famine. Timely aid prevented mass deaths—an example of improved disaster management.
• 1970–73 Maharashtra Drought:
  Cited as a successful famine prevention model, where proactive governance averted a crisis.
• 21st Century Reality: Hidden Hunger
  • Despite economic growth, India still battles chronic hunger.
  • 2024 FAO Report: 194.6 million undernourished population — highest in the world
  • Irony: Per capita income tripled, but minimum dietary intake declined—pointing to inequality and nutritional neglect.

📌 Key Takeaways for UPSC & Real Understanding

• Famines in India were not merely natural disasters, but amplified by governance failure—especially under colonial rule.
• Policy interventions (like famine codes, railways, welfare schemes) turned the tide post-independence.
• Modern hunger is less visible—but equally dangerous, driven by poverty, malnutrition, and unequal distribution, not scarcity.

Case Study: Bengal Famine of 1943

– Forgotten Holocaust of Colonial India

In 1943, Bengal—then part of British India—witnessed a famine so massive it claimed up to 3 million lives, almost half the number of deaths in the Holocaust. Yet, unlike Jallianwala Bagh, it has no official Remembrance Day. It is often remembered as a tragedy, not an atrocity—despite being largely man-made.

⚰️ Magnitude of Loss

• 2.1 to 3 million people—from a population of just over 60 million—died from starvation, malaria, malnutrition-related diseases, and lack of healthcare.
• Families were torn apart. Men sold land or joined the army, while women and children migrated—homeless and hopeless—to cities like Calcutta, seeking relief.

🛑 Was It a Natural Famine? Most Historians Say No

Though some attribute the famine to natural causes like cyclones, floods, and crop disease, a growing consensus among historians labels it as “man-made”—a product of colonial wartime policies, economic mismanagement, and bureaucratic apathy.

⚙️ Colonial Economics, Agrarian Crisis & War-Time Austerity

• Bengal’s economy was agrarian, but productivity was stagnant.
  A fast-growing population led to reduced per capita rice availability, swelling the ranks of the landless poor.
• Many lived semi-starved lives even before the famine; trapped in debt cycles, they often lost their small landholdings to land grabbers.
• Military funding triggered inflation. Workers now received cash wages, not food grain. But wages didn’t keep pace with rising prices, leaving the poor unable to buy food.
• Rice imports from Burma stopped after Japanese occupation, while British authorities, fearing Japanese advances, initiated “denial policies”—destroying boats and stockpiles, cutting off internal transport and food flow.

🏢 Discriminatory Distribution & Policy Failures

• A Foodstuffs Scheme prioritized the military, industrial workers, and bureaucrats for food access.
  The poor were simply left out.
• Trade barriers restricted movement of grain across provinces. Meanwhile, Churchill’s War Cabinet refused to release emergency shipments—citing shipping shortages, though ships were available elsewhere.
• The result: chronic scarcity, a black market, and hoarding.
• The Bengal government denied famine was occurring. Their first response—to fix rice prices—backfired, worsening speculation and creating a rice black market.

⚰️ Delayed Relief & Lingering Deaths

• Real relief began only when the Indian Army took over in October 1943.
• A good rice harvest in December stabilized supplies.
• Yet, over half the deaths occurred after food became available—due to disease that spread among already weakened bodies.
• The famine destroyed Bengal’s rural economy, collapsed traditional family structures, and left a permanent scar on India’s collective memory.

🧠 Final Reflection

This famine wasn’t just about crop failure. It was a story of imperial indifference, policy paralysis, and economic exclusion. It remains a reminder that hunger is not only about lack of food—it’s about lack of justice. While nature may ignite a crisis, it is policy and politics that decide who survives and who starves.