Independent Kingdoms UPSC | 18th Century India

When the mighty Mughal Empire began crumbling under the weight of internal weaknesses and external challenges in the early 18th century, a new political landscape began to emerge. Some regions declared autonomy as Mughal governors, while others broke away through rebellion. But there was a third category — those who neither broke away from Delhi nor rebelled against it. They emerged as truly independent powers, taking advantage of the vacuum left by the decline of centralized imperial control.

One such kingdom was Mysore — an example of an Independent Kingdom, alongside regions like Kerala and the Rajput States.

The State of Mysore

🏰 The Origins of Mysore

The Mysore kingdom was founded as early as 1399 by Yaduraya Wodeyar.
For long, it functioned as a vassal state under the mighty Vijayanagar Empire (1336–1646).
But by the early 17th century (1612–13), the Wodeyars of Mysore began asserting their independence, especially as Vijayanagar declined after the Battle of Talikota (1565).

By the 18th century, Mysore had evolved into a semi-autonomous regional power. However, it was not the king but his ministers who held real power.

🧍‍♂️Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (1734–1766)

He was king in name, but power lay with his ministers — Nanjaraj and Devraj — who reduced him to a puppet monarch.
The growing discontent with their control created a fertile ground for the rise of an ambitious military commander: Haidar Ali.

🌟 Rise of Haidar Ali (1721–1782)

“In Indian history, very few illiterate men left such a modern legacy.”

Born in 1721, Haidar Ali began his career as a junior officer in the Mysore army. But he was no ordinary soldier. Through sheer military brilliance, strategic foresight, and political shrewdness, he rose through the ranks.

🔧 Modernization of the Army

Haidar realized that traditional Indian warfare was no match for the European-trained armies.
He sought help from French experts, modernized his forces, and built a Western-style arsenal in Dindigul (Tamil Nadu) in 1755.
By 1761, he overthrew Nanjaraj and became the de facto ruler of Mysore.

🛡️ Haidar Ali’s Rule (1761–1782)

Though unlettered, Haidar was an efficient administrator and practical visionary.

🏛️ Administration

Introduced Mughal-style administrative and revenue systems.
Maintained religious tolerance — a rarity among militaristic rulers.
Asserted state control over rebellious poligars (local zamindars).

⚔️ Military Campaigns

Fought continuous wars with the Marathas, Nizam of Hyderabad, and the British East India Company.
In the First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69), he defeated the British near Madras and emerged as a strong challenger to their growing influence.

🧾 Diplomatic Flexibility

After suffering losses to Madhavrao Peshwa, he wisely paid tribute.
But after Madhavrao’s death, he quickly regained lost territories and consolidated Mysore’s power again.

Haidar Ali died in 1782, in the midst of the Second Anglo-Mysore War. He was succeeded by his son — the formidable and controversial Tipu Sultan.

🧠 Tipu Sultan (1782–1799)

Tipu was unlike any ruler of his time — a complex personality, with equal passion for warfare, innovation, diplomacy, and governance.

👑 State Reforms and Innovations

Introduced a new calendar, new coinage system, and standardized weights and measures.
Maintained a rich library with books on religion, science, military, and mathematics.
Took deep interest in the French Revolution, even becoming a member of the Jacobin Club and planting the symbolic ‘Tree of Liberty’ in Seringapatam.

🌍 Foreign Relations

Tipu understood that to counter the British, foreign alliances were crucial.

Sent diplomatic missions to France, Ottoman Empire, Oman, Persia (Zand dynasty), and Afghanistan (Durrani Empire).
In 1788, he sent three envoys to Paris seeking an anti-British alliance with Louis XVI.

⚔️ Military Might and Modernization

Tipu continued and expanded his father’s military reforms.

Recruited French military instructors for artillery and infantry.
His army used muskets and bayonets made locally in Mysore.
By 1796, Tipu even began building a modern navy, establishing two dockyards and designing ships himself.

🚀 Mysorean Rockets: India’s Technological Marvel

“Before the world knew the power of rockets, Tipu was already launching them.”

Earlier rockets in China and Europe used bamboo tubes — limited in range and power.
Tipu replaced bamboo with iron-cased rockets, which could travel further and explode with more impact.
During the Battle of Pollilur (1780), British troops were stunned by these rockets.
Tipu deployed a specialized rocket corps of 1,200 soldiers — a first in the world.
These Mysorean Rockets inspired later British rocket designs, notably those used in the Napoleonic Wars.

💰 Land Revenue and Economic Reforms

To support military and administrative costs, Tipu and Haidar took direct control of revenue.

💸 Revenue System

Eliminated intermediaries, linking directly with the peasantry.
Categorized land and adopted differentiated rent systems:
- Ijara Land: Fixed rent leases.
- Hissa Land: Share of produce.
Watered lands paid in kind, dry lands in cash.

🚫 Reforms

Abolished jagirs, reduced poligar privileges, and curbed illegal taxes.
Nationalised key resources like tobacco and sandalwood.

🌾 Peasant Welfare

Under their rule, Mysore’s economy flourished, and peasants were better off than their counterparts in British-occupied Madras.

🏭 Industrial Vision

Tipu was ahead of his time — he realized economic independence was critical.

Invited foreign experts to develop local industries.
Attempted to set up an Indian trading company like the European ones.

🕌 Was Tipu a Religious Bigot?

British sources often portray him as a fanatic, but modern historians urge caution.
He was a devout Muslim, but not intolerant.
Donated to temples, repaired damaged shrines, and supported religious pluralism.
However, instances of forced conversions during military campaigns in regions like Malabar and Coorg complicate this image.

🪦 Fall of Mysore

Four Anglo-Mysore Wars were fought between Mysore rulers and the British.
Over time, the British aligned with the Marathas, Nizam, and Nawab of Carnatic to weaken Mysore.
In 1799, during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu Sultan was killed at the Battle of Seringapatam.
The British annexed Mysore, ending its status as an independent kingdom.

🌴 Kerala in the 18th Century: From Fragmentation to Consolidation

As the Mughal grip weakened across India in the 18th century, different regions followed different trajectories. While some areas fell into anarchy or colonial subjugation, Kerala offers a unique story of internal consolidation, military modernisation, and a remarkable indigenous victory over European colonial forces.

🏯 Political Landscape of Kerala: Early 18th Century

At the start of the 1700s, Kerala was not a unified political entity. Instead, it was fragmented among numerous feudal chiefs and local Rajas, each controlling small territories.

Among these, four principal states stood out:

Calicut (ruled by the Zamorin)
Chirakkal (in northern Malabar)
Cochin
Travancore (in southern Kerala)

By 1763, however, this fragmented landscape began to consolidate, and only three dominant powers remained:

Calicut,
Cochin, and
Travancore,
which had absorbed or subordinated the smaller regional kingdoms.

👑 Rise of Travancore under Martanda Varma (1729–1758)

The real transformation came under the leadership of King Martanda Varma, who ascended the throne of Travancore in 1729.

🛡️ Military and Administrative Reforms

Martanda Varma was deeply influenced by Western military models. With the help of European officers, he:

Reorganised his army with modern firearms.
Built a modern arsenal.
Laid the foundation for a strong centralized state.

He also undertook significant public works:

Constructed roads, canals, and irrigation projects.
Encouraged foreign trade by leveraging Travancore’s spice-rich economy.

🌍 Expansionist Policy

Adopted a policy of annexing smaller neighbouring states.
Most notably, he brought an end to Dutch political dominance in Kerala through the Battle of Colachel.

⚔️ Battle of Colachel (1741): A Turning Point in Colonial Encounters

“The first Asian kingdom to defeat a European colonial power on Indian soil.”

Location: Colachel (present-day Kanyakumari district).
Belligerents: Travancore forces under Martanda Varma vs. the Dutch East India Company.
Dutch Commander: Admiral Eustachius De Lannoy.

🔥 Outcome

The Travancore army decisively defeated the Dutch.
Dutch soldiers were captured, and some were offered service in Travancore.
Eustachius De Lannoy, instead of returning to Europe, accepted the king’s offer and became a key architect of Travancore’s military reforms.

This victory marked the end of Dutch political ambitions in Kerala and is celebrated as one of the earliest anti-colonial victories by an Indian power.

⚓ Eustachius De Lannoy: From Foe to Valia Kappitan

De Lannoy’s post-defeat career is a fascinating tale of loyalty and transformation:

Served Travancore for over two decades.
Trained the army in European military techniques.
Rose to the position of Valia Kappitan (Senior Admiral).
Played a key role in modernising the Travancore military — one of the best-organised native forces in South India at the time.

🎨 Rama Varma (1758–1798): A Cultural Luminary

After Martanda Varma’s death in 1758, he was succeeded by Rama Varma — a ruler known more for his intellectual and artistic pursuits than for conquest.

🎭 Contributions

Fluent in English, kept himself updated with European affairs.
Was a poet, scholar, musician, and theatre actor — a true Renaissance figure of the Kerala court.
Under his reign, Travancore retained its autonomy, even as Haidar Ali launched campaigns across the region.

⚔️ Haidar Ali’s Invasion of Kerala (1766)

While Travancore remained intact, northern Kerala faced the military wrath of Haidar Ali of Mysore.

In 1766, Haidar Ali invaded northern Kerala, capturing territories belonging to the Zamorin of Calicut and extending Mysore’s influence up to Cochin.
However, Travancore strategically avoided annexation by either diplomacy or military preparedness, preserving its independence during this turbulent period.

📚 Revival of Malayalam Literature and Sanskrit Learning

The political stability under the Travancore rulers allowed Kerala to experience a cultural and literary renaissance in the late 18th century.

🖋️ Literary Revival

Malayalam literature began flourishing once again, with court patronage from rulers and chiefs.
The capital Trivandrum became a notable centre for Sanskrit scholarship, attracting poets, philosophers, and intellectuals from across the region.

🔚 Conclusion: Kerala’s Unique Trajectory

Kerala’s 18th-century story is one of regional consolidation, military modernisation, and cultural flowering.

Under Martanda Varma, Travancore became a model kingdom — militarily strong, diplomatically shrewd, and culturally vibrant.
The Battle of Colachel stands as a milestone in Asian resistance to European colonialism.
Travancore’s rulers, especially Rama Varma, exemplified the blend of power and intellect, ensuring that Kerala retained its distinctive identity even amidst wider turmoil.

⚔️ Rajput States in the 18th Century: Glory, Fragmentation, and Cultural Brilliance

The 18th century was a period of political fluidity and power transition across India. While new powers like the Marathas and Mysore emerged, older warrior lineages such as the Rajputs adapted to changing circumstances — some with pragmatism, others with internal strife.

The Rajput states, once closely aligned with the Mughal court, gradually drifted toward independence as the central authority at Delhi collapsed.

🏯 Rajputs and the Mughals: From Fealty to Freedom

Historically, many Rajput clans had joined the Mughal service, especially under emperors like Akbar, who had adopted a conciliatory policy toward them.
Several Rajput rulers were appointed as governors (subahdars) and given mansabs (ranks) in the imperial structure.
But with the decline of Mughal central power, the Rajputs began loosening their ties with Delhi, gradually functioning as independent states.

🗺️ Fragmentation and Limitations

Despite their martial tradition and long history of autonomy, the Rajput states faced several inherent weaknesses in the 18th century:

Expansionist efforts were made by absorbing weaker neighbours, but no single Rajput state grew powerful enough to challenge the Marathas or the British.
Most states suffered from internal rivalries, petty quarrels, and dynastic disputes.
Like the later Mughal court, corruption, intrigue, and factionalism plagued the internal politics of Rajput courts.

In short, despite their heritage and military strength, the Rajputs failed to evolve into a unified regional power.

👑 Raja Sawai Jai Singh II of Amber (1699–1743): The Philosopher King

Among the many Rajput rulers of this era, Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber stands out as a remarkable exception — a man of science, culture, and vision.

He ruled for 44 years, and during his reign, Jaipur emerged as a centre of art, science, and rational urban planning.

🏙️ Founder of Jaipur: A Scientific City

Jai Singh founded the city of Jaipur, which was one of the earliest planned cities in India.
Its construction was strictly based on scientific principles, including geometry, astronomy, and vastu shastra (traditional Indian architecture).
Jaipur was laid out in a grid pattern, making it an early example of urban rationalism in Indian history.

🌌 Astronomy and Observatories

Jai Singh was deeply fascinated by astronomy, and unlike many contemporary rulers, he actively invested in scientific infrastructure.

He built five observatories (Jantar Mantar) in:
- Delhi
- Jaipur
- Ujjain
- Varanasi
- Mathura
These observatories used massive stone instruments for celestial observations and time-keeping.

He also compiled astronomical tables titled Zij Muhammadshahi, named after the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah.

📘 Scientific Temperament

Translated Euclid’s Elements of Geometry (a foundational text in Western mathematics) into Sanskrit.
Worked extensively on trigonometry and calendar reform.
His efforts were part of a larger project to synthesize Indian and Western scientific traditions.

🕊️ Social Reform Initiatives

Jai Singh’s vision extended beyond science — he also showed a progressive outlook in social issues.

Tried to curb extravagant wedding expenses for daughters, which were economically devastating for Rajput families and sometimes led to female infanticide.
Encouraged widow remarriage, going against deeply entrenched social conservatism of the Rajput elite.

His reforms were ahead of his time and reflected a rare combination of scientific thinking and social responsibility.

🔚 Conclusion: Legacy of the Rajput States

In the 18th century, the Rajput states were brave but fractured, glorious but politically stagnant.

While they could not mount a unified front against rising powers like the Marathas or the British, their cultural and scientific contributions remained significant.
Raja Sawai Jai Singh II stands out as a beacon of enlightenment, combining traditional Rajput valor with a modern, inquisitive mind.
His reign symbolizes the possibility that even amidst political chaos, a ruler can leave behind a legacy of reason, art, and reform.