Lord Richard Wellesley

When Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) arrived in India in 1798, the political climate was ripe for a decisive shift. His predecessor, Sir John Shore, had followed a non-intervention policy—avoiding unnecessary wars and refraining from getting too deeply involved in the affairs of Indian states. Wellesley reversed that completely.

He believed the time had come not just to protect British possessions but to transform the East India Company into the undisputed political power in India.

Why the Timing Favoured Wellesley’s Ambitions

By the late 18th century:

1. Mysore had been seriously weakened after the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1792).
2. Maratha power was declining due to intense internal rivalries between the Peshwa, Scindia, Holkar, and Bhosale.
3. British industrialists and traders in England wanted the Indian market fully under British control so they could flood it with British manufactured goods.
4. The East India Company supported expansion, provided it did not harm profits.
5. There was a pressing need to block French influence in India—especially after the French Revolution and Napoleon’s rise. Any Indian ruler who showed friendship towards France was considered a threat.
6. The Afghan ruler, Shah Zaman, posed an external danger by repeatedly attempting to invade India, sometimes in collaboration with Indian powers like Tipu Sultan.

The Triple Strategy for Expansion

Wellesley employed three methods to achieve his political goals:

1. The System of Subsidiary Alliances – The most famous and systematic expansion tool of his administration. Under this, Indian rulers had to:
   • Keep British troops in their territory.
   • Pay for their maintenance.
   • Conduct foreign policy only with British approval.
   • Effectively give up sovereignty while retaining a nominal throne.
2. Outright Wars – If a ruler resisted, military action followed.
3. Assumption of Territories – Absorbing lands from rulers who were already subordinate but considered unreliable.

Major Wars under Wellesley

1. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799)

• Mysore, under Tipu Sultan, was suspected of allying with the French to counter British influence.
• In the Battle of Seringapatam (1799), Tipu Sultan was defeated and killed.
• Mysore was placed back under the Wodeyar dynasty, but now under a subsidiary alliance, making it a complete dependency of the Company.
• This was the final blow to Mysore’s independence—it never again posed a serious challenge to British power.

2. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805)

• Sparked by Maratha internal disputes and British interference.
• The British defeated major Maratha chiefs:
  • Bhosale (Nagpur) and Scindia (Gwalior) suffered heavy losses.
  • Holkar, however, remained undefeated during this phase.
• The British gained:
  • Control over the Orissa coast.
  • Territories between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
• The Peshwa became a virtual puppet ruler, dependent on British support for survival.

Shah Zaman and the Northern Threat

• Shah Zaman, grandson of Ahmed Shah Durrani, was the king of Kabul from 1783.
• Encouraged by Tipu Sultan, he attempted to invade India multiple times:
  • 1793, 1795, 1796 – All failed.
  • 1798 – Managed to occupy Lahore, but was eventually forced to retreat.
• Wellesley saw such threats as justification for tightening British control over all buffer states in the north-west, to prevent any foreign invasion route into India.

Significance of Wellesley’s Expansion

• His tenure marked the shift from cautious political manoeuvring (Hastings) and selective wars (Cornwallis) to full-scale imperial expansion.
• By 1805, the East India Company was no longer just one of many powers—it was the single largest political authority in India.
• Wellesley’s policies, especially the Subsidiary Alliance, created the framework for British domination of princely states for decades to come.

If you notice, Hastings had been about protective diplomacy, Cornwallis about assertive supremacy, but Wellesley took it to aggressive absorption—laying the foundation for the British to control both direct territories and indirect princely state dependencies.

System of Subsidiary Alliances – The Silent Conquest

When we think of empires expanding, we often imagine grand battles. But in India’s case, some of the biggest territorial gains for the British came not from war, but from a pen stroke on a treaty. That’s what the Subsidiary Alliance was — a political and military arrangement that turned Indian rulers into dependents without firing a shot.

Origins and Evolution

• The basic idea wasn’t new.
  • French Governor Joseph Dupleix had used a similar method in the 1740s with the Nizam of Hyderabad and Carnatic princes — providing troops in exchange for political influence.
  • The British East India Company adopted the idea, with Robert Clive introducing early conditions after his 1757 victory at Plassey.
• Lord Wellesley, however, gave it a definite shape and turned it into a systematic policy.

How the Alliance Worked

Under the Subsidiary Alliance, the Indian ruler had to:

1. Accept a permanent British military force stationed in his territory.
2. Pay for its maintenance — either in cash or by ceding territory.
3. Keep a British Resident (representative) at his court.
4. Disband his own independent army.
5. Not employ Europeans without British consent.
6. Not negotiate with any other power (Indian or foreign) without the Governor-General’s approval.

In theory, the British promised non-interference in internal matters. In reality, the British Resident meddled in everyday administration, slowly eroding sovereignty.

British Justification vs. Reality

• Justification: Protection from domestic rivals and foreign invaders (especially the French).
• Reality: It was a subtle tribute system. The ruler was still on the throne, but all real power — defence, diplomacy, and eventually even administration — shifted to the British.

Defects for the Indian States

• Loss of independence in external affairs (no control over diplomacy, defence, or employment of experts).
• Heavy financial burden of maintaining British troops.
• Often had to cede territory instead of paying subsidies (e.g., the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1800).
• Weakening of native armies — leaving the state defenceless without British help.

Social and Political Consequences

1. Unemployment of Soldiers – Thousands of traditional soldiers and officers lost their jobs, many turning to banditry. The Pindarees, who terrorised central India, largely came from these unemployed groups.
2. Misgovernment – Rulers became complacent, knowing the British would protect them. Governance suffered, people’s needs were ignored, and public resentment grew.

Benefits to the British

• Strengthened Company’s military presence at the expense of Indian states.
• Freed British territories from attack while allowing wars to be fought far away.
• Created a pretext for annexation — if a ruler was “inefficient,” the British could step in.
• Made the British the paramount power in India by the early 19th century.

Implementation – Who Signed and When

State / Ruler	Year of Treaty
Nizam of Hyderabad	1798
Ruler of Mysore	1799
Ruler of Tanjore	1799
Nawab of Awadh	1801
Peshwa (Maratha)	1802
Bhosale (Nagpur)	1803
Scindia (Gwalior)	1804
Holkar (Indore)	1818
Amirs of Sindh	1839

Notable Case Studies

Nizam of Hyderabad (1798, renewed 1800)

• First major treaty under Wellesley.
• All French troops in Hyderabad were dismissed and replaced with a British force.
• Nizam paid ₹24 lakh/year; later ceded territory in 1800 instead of cash.

Mysore (1799)

• After Tipu Sultan’s death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Krishnaraja III became king under a special treaty.
• Governor-General could take over administration in case of “necessity.”

Nawab of Awadh (1801)

• Citing Shah Zaman’s Afghan invasion threat, Wellesley forced a treaty.
• Nawab ceded half his kingdom (Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, Lower Doab) for a larger British force.
• Nawab had to accept British control over internal administration.

Tanjore (1799)

• Succession dispute → British took over administration.
• Raja Serfoji kept his title, received ₹4 lakh pension.

Surat (1800)

• Death of Nawab provided opportunity → British assumed administration.
• Nawab’s successor retained the title, got ₹1 lakh pension.

Carnatic (1801)

• Treaty with Azim-ud-Daulah transferred all military and civil administration to the British.

Strategic Impact

The Subsidiary Alliance was Wellesley’s masterstroke. Unlike Hastings’ Ring Fence Policy (defensive) or Cornwallis’ selective wars, this system:

• Expanded British influence without direct annexation initially.
• Created a web of dependent states that paid for their own subjugation.
• Neutralised potential allies for rival European powers, especially the French.

By the time Wellesley left in 1805, the map of India was dotted with states that were “independent” in name but functioned as protectorates under British control.