British Conquest of Burma

Once the British had established firm control over India, their eyes naturally shifted to the surrounding region. Nepal and China could be managed diplomatically and militarily, but Burma—today’s Myanmar—was a different matter.

Burma was not a passive neighbour. It had an ambitious, expansionist ruling house—the Konbaung dynasty (1752–1885)—and it was already looking outward for conquests.

Burma Before the British Conquest – Rise of the Konbaung Dynasty

• Founder: Alaungpaya (1752–1760) established the dynasty and began unifying Burma.
• Bodawpaya (1782–1819) took expansion to the next level:
  • Conquered Tenasserim (1776) and Pegu.
  • Annexed Arakan in 1784.
• This laid the foundation for modern-day Burma as a powerful regional state.

The Burmese push didn’t stop there. They marched westwards:

• Manipur was conquered in 1813.
• Assam fell in 1822.

This meant Burma’s borders were now directly touching British India, which alarmed the British East India Company.

Why This Meant Trouble for the British

The situation was ripe for conflict because:

1. Both powers were expansionist – Sooner or later, they were bound to collide.
2. Border disputes – The frontier was ill-defined, leading to frequent clashes.
3. Economic motives –
   • British merchants eyed Burma’s rich forest resources (especially teak).
   • They wanted a new market to push British manufactured goods.
4. Geopolitical rivalry – The British wanted to block French influence in Burma before it could threaten India.

Three Anglo–Burmese Wars

The rivalry unfolded in three decisive wars, each bringing Burma closer to full British control:

War	Years	British Governor-General	Result
First Anglo–Burmese War	1824–26	Lord Amherst	British victory; Burma ceded Assam, Manipur, Arakan, and Tenasserim to the EIC.
Second Anglo–Burmese War	1852–53	Lord Dalhousie	Lower Burma (including Pegu) annexed by the British.
Third Anglo–Burmese War	1885	Lord Dufferin	Entire Burma annexed; Konbaung dynasty ended; Burma incorporated into British India.

Key Burmese Rulers (Konbaung Dynasty)

Ruler	Reign	Notable Events
Alaungpaya (Founder)	1752–60	Unified Burma, founded dynasty.
Bodawpaya	1782–1819	Conquered Tenasserim, Pegu, Arakan.
Pagan	1846–53	Reign during tensions with British before Second War.
Mindon	1853–78	Tried to modernise and maintain independence.
Thibaw	1878–85	Last king of Burma; defeated in Third War, exiled to India.

Significance for the British

• The conquest secured India’s eastern frontier.
• Gave the British access to rich timber and mineral resources.
• Opened the way for trade with Southeast Asia and China through Burma.
• Prevented French penetration into the region.

The First Anglo–Burmese War (1824–1826)

By the early 1820s, Burma had already occupied Manipur (1813) and Assam (1822).
For the British East India Company, this was alarming—because these territories were close to Bengal, and any Burmese push further west could directly threaten British India.

The Immediate Trigger

• To counter the Burmese, the British sent troops into Cachar and Jaintia (both independent kingdoms at the time).
• The Burmese commander-in-chief, Maha Bandula, saw this as provocation and marched troops into Cachar.
• Matters escalated in February 1824, when the Burmese invaded and captured Shalpuri Island near Chittagong—a territory of the EIC.
• The British responded by formally declaring war on Burma.

Course of the War

Early Phase

• The British faced stiff Burmese resistance but gradually drove them out of Assam, Cachar, Manipur, and Arakan.

Strategic Shift – The Rangoon Attack

• The British decided to strike from the south via the sea.
• In 1824, Sir Archibald Campbell led a naval force of 10,000 British and Indian troops to capture Rangoon.
• The Burmese fought fiercely, but in April 1824, Maha Bandula was killed, weakening their defence.

The Final Push

• By February 1826, the Anglo–Indian army had advanced to Yandabo, just 80 km from Ava (the Burmese capital).
• Both sides were exhausted—the Burmese were losing militarily, the British were winning but facing a huge financial burden.
• This set the stage for peace negotiations.

Treaty of Yandabo (24 February 1826)

Signed between General Sir Archibald Campbell (British) and Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin (Burmese).

Terms of the Treaty:

1. Cession of territory – Arakan (Rakhine) and Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) given to the British.
2. Abandonment of claims – Burma renounced claims to Assam, Cachar, and Jaintia.
3. Recognition of Manipur’s independence.
4. Diplomatic exchange – British Resident at Ava; Burmese envoy at Calcutta.
5. War indemnity – One million pounds sterling to Britain.
6. Commercial treaty – To be negotiated with Britain.

Outcome:

• Assam, Arakan, and Tenasserim became part of British India.
• Cachar, Jaintia, and Manipur became British Protectorates (nominally independent but under British control).

Significance of the Treaty of Yandabo

• Ended one of the costliest wars in British Indian history.
• Broke Burmese power, starting the decline of their independence.
• Strengthened British control in Southeast Asia.
• Secured the northeastern frontier of British India.

The Aftermath – Economic & Political Consequences

For Burma

• Lost territory, prestige, and economic strength.
• War indemnity drained resources.

For the British

• War cost £5–13 million—a massive financial hit.
• Contributed to the economic crisis of 1833.
• Forced the EIC to give up its trade monopoly with China (under the Charter Act of 1833).

Impact on Northeast India

The treaty drastically changed the political map of the Northeast:

Territory	Status after Treaty	Later Development
Assam (Ahom Kingdom)	Direct British control	Became part of British India
Manipur	British Protectorate	Remained under indirect control
Cachar	Ruled by local kings under British supervision	South Cachar annexed (1832), North Cachar annexed (1854)
Jaintia	Ruled locally	Annexed in 1835 due to human sacrifice practices

Note on Jaintia Annexation (1835):

• The Jaintia rulers were accused of abducting British subjects and sacrificing them to Goddess Kali—this became the pretext for annexation.

The Second Anglo–Burmese War (1852–53)

By the early 1850s, the British already held Arakan and Tenasserim (acquired in the First War). Now they wanted more—not because of security concerns, but largely due to commercial greed.

British Commercial Interests

• Teak timber from Upper Burma attracted British timber firms.
• Burma’s large population seemed like a lucrative market for British cotton goods and other manufactured items.
• Occupying Burma’s two coastal provinces gave Britain a foothold, but they wanted direct trade access to the rest of the country.

The Trigger – A Convenient Excuse

When Lord Dalhousie became Governor-General (1848), he was already aggressive in expansion. He simply needed a pretext.

• Two British sea captains complained that the Governor of Rangoon had extorted ₹1,000 from them.
• Dalhousie used this as a diplomatic outrage and dispatched a British expedition to Burma in April 1852.

The War

• The British quickly captured Rangoon, Bassein, and Pegu.
• At the same time, internal politics in Burma took a turn—King Mindon overthrew his half-brother King Pagan in February 1853.
• Mindon, though unwilling to surrender territory, couldn’t match British power.

Key Point:
There was no formal treaty—the war ended without an agreement, but the British annexed Pegu, securing Burma’s entire coastline. By 1855, after suppressing local guerrilla resistance, they controlled all of Lower Burma.

The Third Anglo–Burmese War (1885)

By the 1880s, British Burma was split—Lower Burma under direct British control, Upper Burma still independent under the Konbaung dynasty. British merchants and officials now wanted to absorb Upper Burma as well.

Causes of the Third War

1. Commercial Greed

• British merchants were eager to expand trade with China via Burma.
• A commercial treaty (1862) had allowed British merchants to settle anywhere in Burma and navigate the Irrawaddy River, but Burma retained trade monopolies on items like cotton, wheat, and ivory.
• In February 1882, King Thibaw abolished these monopolies under pressure, but British merchants still wanted direct political control.

2. French Influence – A Strategic Threat

• King Mindon died in 1878; his successor Thibaw signed a commercial treaty with France in 1885.
• British fears:
  • French and American rivals could capture the Burmese market.
  • Burma might become a French ally, threatening British dominance—especially since France was already strong in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

3. The Trade Dispute – The BBTC Case

• The Bombay–Burmah Trading Corporation (a Scottish-run firm) was accused by the Burmese government of illegally extracting more teak than contracted, through bribery.
• Burma fined the company; the British used this as the official pretext for war.

The War and Annexation

• Lord Dufferin, the Governor-General, demanded that Burma’s foreign policy be placed under the Viceroy of India—Burma refused.
• Britain invaded on 13 November 1885.
• Within weeks, British forces took Mandalay; King Thibaw surrendered on 28 November 1885.
• On 1 January 1886, Upper Burma was annexed, and Burma became a province of British India.

Aftermath and Burmese Independence

• After World War I, a modern nationalist movement began in Burma, with boycotts of British goods and calls for Home Rule.
• Burmese leaders aligned with the Indian National Congress in the freedom struggle.
• In 1935, the British separated Burma from India—intending to weaken the nationalist movement.
• During World War II, nationalist leader U Aung San mobilised the freedom movement further.
• Finally, Burma gained independence on 4 January 1948.