British–Afghan Relations – The “Great Game”

To understand why Britain kept interfering in Afghanistan during the 19th century, we must remember the “Great Game”—the rivalry between the British Empire (controlling India) and the Russian Empire (expanding into Central Asia).

By the 1830s, the British feared that:

1. Russia might invade India through Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier.
2. Afghanistan could become a Russian ally, threatening British security.

So, they wanted Afghanistan to remain a friendly buffer state—but on their terms. This led to multiple Anglo–Afghan Wars.

First Anglo–Afghan War (1838–42)

Governor-General: Lord Auckland

Background

• Dost Mohammad Khan became ruler of Afghanistan in 1826.
• Britain wanted him to sign a Subsidiary Alliance, which would make Afghanistan dependent on British India.
• Dost Mohammad, however, wanted equal terms—not to be reduced to a British puppet.

Lord Auckland decided to remove Dost Mohammad and replace him with Shah Shuja Durrani, a former Afghan ruler living in exile.

The Tripartite Treaty (26 June 1838)

Signed at Lahore between:

1. British Indian Government
2. Maharaja Ranjit Singh (Sikh ruler of Punjab)
3. Shah Shuja (ex-ruler of Afghanistan)

Key Terms:

• British + Ranjit Singh to help Shah Shuja regain the throne.
• Shah Shuja to consult British & Punjab before dealing with any foreign power.
• Shah Shuja recognised Ranjit Singh’s claims over Afghan territories west of the Indus.

British Invasion & Shah Shuja’s Rule

• February 1839: British, Sikh, and Shah Shuja’s forces invaded Afghanistan.
• Dost Mohammad was defeated; Shah Shuja installed as king.
• British interference had no real justification—it was purely strategic paranoia.

Afghan Resistance

• Afghans resented a foreign-imposed ruler and British presence.
• By 1840, Dost Mohammad was captured and sent to India.
• November 2, 1841: A Kabul uprising erupted.
• December 11, 1841: British agreed to evacuate and restore Dost Mohammad.

The Tragic Retreat (January 1842)

• As the British withdrew from Kabul, Afghan tribes attacked relentlessly.
• Out of 16,000 troops and camp followers, only one man reached the frontier alive—Dr. William Brydon (a few others survived as prisoners).
• Shah Shuja was assassinated soon after the British exit.

Reoccupation & Withdrawal

• September 16, 1842: British forces briefly reoccupied Kabul in retaliation.
• Lord Ellenborough, now Governor-General, decided to end the Afghan adventure.
• In 1843, Dost Mohammad was restored to the throne as independent ruler of Afghanistan.

Outcome of the First Afghan War

• British failure—militarily and politically.
• Human loss: Nearly 20,000 soldiers and civilians.
• Economic loss: Around ₹1.5 crore (huge for the time).
• Lesson for Britain: Direct interference in Afghanistan was risky and costly.

From Aggression to Friendship – The “Non-Interference” Phase

After the humiliating disaster of the First Anglo–Afghan War (1838–42), the British became cautious.
They still feared Russian expansion towards India but realised that direct interference in Afghan politics was risky.

Treaty of Peshawar (1855) – Turning a Rival into a Friend

• Ruler: Dost Mohammad Khan
• Governor-General: Lord Dalhousie

Terms:

1. Friendly and peaceful relations.
2. Mutual respect for territories.
3. No interference in each other’s internal affairs.
4. Support each other’s friends; oppose each other’s enemies.

Why it mattered:

• During the Crimean War (1854–56), when Britain fought Russia, Dost Mohammad remained neutral.
• During the Revolt of 1857, he stayed loyal and did not exploit British weakness.

Lord Lawrence’s Policy (1864 onwards)

Successive Viceroys maintained a policy of:

• Non-interference in Afghanistan’s internal affairs.
• Occasional aid to the Amir to strengthen him against internal rivals and foreign pressure.

Goal: Keep Afghanistan independent but friendly, so it could act as a buffer against Russia without Britain having to occupy it.

Second Anglo–Afghan War (1878–80)

Why the peace broke down:

• After losing the Crimean War, Russia intensified expansion in Central Asia from 1870 onwards.
• Lord Lytton became Governor-General in 1876 with a brief to counter Russian influence—by diplomacy, if possible, by force if necessary.
• Amir Sher Ali feared Russia but wanted a firm British military guarantee in case of attack. Britain refused.

The Immediate Trigger

• July 1878: Sher Ali allowed a Russian mission into Kabul.
• August 1878: Lord Lytton sent a British mission—Sher Ali refused to receive them.
• Britain saw this as proof of pro-Russian leanings and declared war on 21 November 1878.

Course of the War

• Sher Ali left Kabul to seek Russian help but died in Mazar-e-Sharif.
• His son Mohammad Yaqub Khan took the throne.
• November 1878: 40,000 British troops entered Afghanistan and occupied Kabul.
• Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879):
  1. Yaqub recognised as Amir.
  2. British gained right to keep a Resident in Kabul.
  3. Afghanistan’s foreign policy placed under British control.

Crisis and Aftermath

• September 3, 1879: British Resident Sir Louis Cavagnari murdered in Kabul.
• British forces re-occupied the city.
• Yaqub Khan, unpopular for signing the treaty, abdicated.
• July 1880: Abdur Rahman Khan, grandson of Dost Mohammad, became Amir.

Lord Ripon’s Reversal

• Replaced Lytton’s aggressive policy with non-interference.
• Withdrew the demand for a British Resident.
• Abdur Rahman agreed not to have political relations with any foreign power except Britain.
• Result: Britain controlled Afghanistan’s foreign policy, Amir controlled internal affairs.

Abdur Rahman Khan (1880–1901) – The Iron Amir

Northern Boundary Settlement

• Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission formed.
• Fixed the northern border along the Amu Darya River.

Durand Line Agreement (1893)

• Signed between Abdur Rahman Khan and Sir Henry Mortimer Durand.
• Marked the boundary between British India and Afghanistan.
• Problem: The line cut through Pashtun tribal areas, sowing the seeds for future disputes between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

British Policy in Afghanistan – The Two Approaches

For the entire 19th century, British thinking about Afghanistan was dominated by one fear:

“If Russia advances into Central Asia, it may invade India through Afghanistan or Persia.”

This fear produced two competing strategies:

1. Forward Policy – Aggressive Expansion & Buffer States

Definition:

• Move forward beyond India’s borders to secure control over strategic areas, either by direct annexation or by placing a friendly ruler who would align with Britain.
• The aim was not colonisation, but control over foreign policy of the neighbouring state to prevent Russian influence.

Key Supporters:

• Conservative Party in Britain
• Governor-Generals like Lord Auckland (1836–42) and later Lord Lytton

How it played out:

• Lord Auckland applied Forward Policy in First Afghan War (1838–42) – tried to replace Dost Mohammad with Shah Shuja.
• In 1874, Britain’s Conservative government revived Forward Policy, leading to the Second Afghan War (1878–80).

2. Policy of Masterly Inactivity – Watchful Non-Interference

Definition:

• Maintain a diplomatic understanding with Russia and avoid meddling in Afghanistan’s internal politics.
• If Russia ever attacked, defend on India’s frontier, rather than trying to control Afghanistan.

Key Supporters:

• Liberal Party in Britain
• Governor-General Sir John Lawrence (1864–69)

Rationale:

• Forward Policy was expensive and often failed (First Afghan War being the prime example).
• This approach focused on observation, consolidation, and negotiation rather than military intervention.

The Third Anglo–Afghan War (1919–21)

Background

• First World War (1914–18) stirred anti-British sentiment in Muslim countries.
• Russian Revolution (1917) inspired anti-imperialist movements worldwide.
• Afghanistan wanted full independence from British control over its foreign policy.

The Trigger

• 20 February 1919: Amir Habibullah Khan assassinated.
• His son, Amanullah Khan, became ruler and declared war on British India to assert full independence.

The Outcome

• Short war; ended in 1921 with a treaty recognising Afghanistan’s right to conduct its own foreign affairs.
• Amanullah immediately established diplomatic ties with Soviet Russia in 1919—making Afghanistan one of the first countries to recognise the Soviet government.
• This created a special Afghanistan–Soviet relationship that lasted until 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.