Understanding Land Revenue Systems in British India
When the British East India Company began ruling India, one of their foremost concerns was how to collect revenue from land—their primary source of income. To accomplish this, they devised three major systems:
✅ Zamindari System (1793)
✅ Ryotwari System (1820)
✅ Mahalwari System (1833)
| Aspect | Permanent Settlement | Ryotwari Settlement | Mahalwari Settlement |
|---|---|---|---|
| Introduced | 1793 (Cornwallis) | 1820 (Munro) | 1822 (Holt Mackenzie) |
| Region | Bengal, Bihar, Orissa | Madras, Bombay, Assam, Burma | NW Provinces, Punjab, Central India |
| Revenue Settlement Unit | Zamindar (estate) | Individual ryot (cultivator) | Mahal (village/estate) |
| Ownership | Zamindar made hereditary landlord | Ryot (cultivator) owner (in theory) | Village community collectively |
| Revenue Fixation | Fixed permanently | Revised periodically (20–30 years) | Revised periodically |
| Intermediary | Zamindar | None (direct with ryot) | Village headman / community |
🇮🇳 Post-Independence Land Reforms: The End of Exploitation?
- Zamindari Abolition Acts were passed in most states.
- Surplus lands were taken away from landlords.
- Land Ceiling Acts fixed upper limits on landholdings.
- Challenges emerged when the Supreme Court (Golaknath case) ruled against these acts citing Article 31 (Right to Property).
- Parliament responded by removing Article 31 through constitutional amendments—empowering land reforms.
🧠 Final Reflection: Why This Matters
The British land revenue systems weren’t just about money—they shaped Indian rural society, destroyed traditional agrarian relations, and sowed the seeds of poverty and agrarian distress that linger even today.
Understanding these systems is not just about history, but about how policy decisions influence the economy, society, and politics for generations.
