Agricultural Productivity

Introduction

What exactly is Agricultural Productivity?

Let us begin with a simple question:
Two farmers—Farmer A and Farmer B—both have 1 hectare of land.
Farmer A produces 3 tonnes of wheat, while Farmer B produces 6 tonnes from the same area.

Now ask yourself: who is more productive?
Clearly, Farmer B.
So, agricultural productivity is just a measure of how efficiently we are using our land or resources to produce crops.

In technical terms:

Agricultural Productivity = Total crop production / Total land area (in hectares)

But sometimes, we calculate it using other bases as well:

• Per agricultural worker
• Per unit of input (like seeds, fertilizers, water, etc.)
• Or even per rupee spent, when expressed in monetary terms.

So, in essence:
👉 It tells us how much output we’re getting for every unit of input.

Why is Agricultural Productivity important?

Let’s understand this with a real-life analogy.
Imagine two restaurants of the same size. One is serving 500 customers a day, the other is serving only 100.
Both have the same space, same resources—but one is doing five times better.

This is productivity.
In the same way, agricultural productivity tells us whether we are making the best use of our agricultural resources or not.

Why does this matter?

• It helps in planning for the future.
• It gives a realistic picture of past agricultural development.
• It shows us which regions are lagging behind and need more support or innovation.

Is Agricultural Productivity fixed or changing?

Now comes a beautiful part:
Agricultural productivity is dynamic—it’s not a fixed number. It changes.

Why?

Because it depends on two types of factors:

• Physical factors like rainfall, soil fertility, temperature, irrigation, etc.
• Non-physical factors like government policies, credit availability, education of farmers, and access to technology.

Even a small change in these can drastically affect productivity.

Let’s take an example:
If the same land gets drip irrigation instead of flood irrigation, the yield can improve without changing the land or crop.

That’s the beauty of efficiency—doing the same work, but better.

Where does India stand in terms of Agricultural Productivity?

Here comes a paradox.
India is:

• The second-largest producer of rice and wheat.
• The largest producer of pulses in the world.

But when we talk about productivity (i.e., yield per hectare):

• In rice, India ranks low.
• In wheat, India is around 38th.
• In pulses, it’s shockingly around 138th!

Why this mismatch?

Because we have huge land areas under cultivation, so total production is high.
But we are not using our land efficiently, so per hectare yield is low.

This shows that quantity doesn’t always mean efficiency.

What did the Green Revolution do?

You might think, “Didn’t the Green Revolution fix all this?”

It helped, yes—but only up to a point.

• It boosted productivity mainly in rice and wheat.
• And only in select regions—like Punjab, Haryana, and western UP.

But other crops and other regions were left behind.
So, the national average productivity is still low compared to countries like China, USA, or Brazil.

Conclusion: Why should we care?

Understanding agricultural productivity is not just academic—it’s vital for a country like India where:

• More than 50% of the population depends on agriculture.
• We are aiming for food security, doubling farmers’ income, and sustainable farming.

So, when we talk about making agriculture modern and efficient, we are essentially talking about improving productivity—doing more with less.

And that is the essence of development in any sector, including agriculture.

Spatial Distribution of Agricultural Productivity in India

Introduction – Why does productivity vary from region to region?

Let’s start with a simple question:
Why do two farmers, in two different regions of India, with the same crops, get very different results?

The answer lies in spatial variation—or in simpler terms:

“Where you farm makes a huge difference in how much you produce.”

This is called the spatial distribution of agricultural productivity.
And in India, this distribution falls into three broad levels:
👉 High Productivity Areas
👉 Medium Productivity Areas
👉 Low Productivity Areas

High and Very High Productivity Regions

These are the areas where productivity is the highest in the country.
You can think of these regions as the engine rooms of Indian agriculture.

Examples include:

• Upper Gangetic Plains – especially the Satluj Basin, Trans-Gangetic Plains
• Parts of Punjab and Haryana – like Ludhiana, Panipat, Gurdaspur
• Western Uttar Pradesh – areas like Moradabad and Rohilkhand
• Parts of Kashmir Valley – known for saffron and temperate fruits
• Krishna–Cauvery basin – in southern India

👉 What’s interesting is that these regions may not always have ideal physical conditions (like rainfall or climate), but they compensate with:

• High human development
• Modern farming inputs
• Rich alluvial soil
• Strong market connectivity

They don’t just grow crops—they generate commercial surplus, meaning the produce here is not just for survival but for trade and profit.

Think of these regions as the Mumbai and Bengaluru of agriculture—highly productive, resource-rich, and performance-driven.

Medium Productivity Regions

These are the areas next to the high productivity zones. They don’t perform as well yet, but they hold huge potential.

Examples include:

• Sugarcane belts of UP and Bihar
• Black Cotton Soil regions (like Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh)
• Andhra Coast and Tamil Nadu Coast
• Areas engaged in aquaculture (fish farming)

This region also includes the entire rainfed farming belt of India.
They face uncertain rainfall, limited irrigation—but still manage medium productivity.

👉 Key features:

• Moderate use of modern inputs
• Strong potential for animal husbandry
• Suitable for agricultural diversification

Think of these regions like tier-2 cities in India:
They aren’t as rich or advanced as Delhi or Mumbai, but they are emerging powerhouses, capable of meeting India’s food security needs in the future.

Low Productivity Regions

Finally, we come to the low productivity areas. These are the regions where farming is very difficult, mostly due to adverse physical conditions.

Examples include:

• Desert areas like the Marusthali (Thar Desert)
• Ladakh and high-altitude Himalayan slopes
• Leeward sides of Western Ghats (where rainfall doesn’t reach)
• Chambal ravines, Malwa plateau, Rann of Kutch

👉 Why is productivity low here?

• Less than 25 cm rainfall
• Soil erosion, desertification, and badlands
• Very low carrying capacity of land

These areas are not suitable for large-scale agriculture.
But they do have other uses—for example:

• Forestry
• Growing bio-diesel crops like Jatropha
• Eco-tourism, or non-agricultural land use

They are like the rural hinterlands—they may not lead in agriculture, but they are still valuable if used smartly.

Conclusion – A Patchwork of Productivity

India’s agricultural productivity is like a patchwork quilt—some areas are shining, others are catching up, and some are still struggling.

To improve overall productivity, we need region-specific planning:

• Invest in irrigation and infrastructure in medium zones
• Promote diversified farming in rainfed areas
• Use low productivity areas wisely for non-agricultural purposes

This kind of planning is essential if we want Indian agriculture to be:

• Efficient
• Inclusive
• And sustainable

Temporal Distribution of Agricultural Productivity in India

🌾 What is “Temporal Distribution”?

Before we begin, let’s define the term.

Temporal distribution refers to how agricultural productivity has changed over time—from the colonial era to post-independence to the modern period.

This helps us understand:

• How different policies affected farmers.
• Why some eras saw low output and others high.
• And what lessons history teaches us about future strategies.

Let’s divide this journey into four distinct phases.

Phase 1: Pre-Independence Era

– The Age of Exploitation

Imagine a farmer growing crops not for himself, but for an empire that took most of his produce and gave little in return.

During British rule, agriculture in India was trapped in low productivity. Why?

🔻 Reasons:

• Exploitative systems like Zamindari, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari.
• Land was controlled by intermediaries, not the cultivators.
• Farmers were pushed to grow cash crops like indigo, opium, and cotton—ignoring food crops.
• Bonded labour, high taxes, and lack of ownership meant:
  • No motivation to invest
  • No innovation in farming
  • No surplus generated

👉 Agriculture became a disincentive, not a livelihood of pride.

Phase 2: Post-Independence (1947–1965)

– The Phase of Reforms but Slow Growth

After independence, India took steps to reform its broken agricultural system.
This was a period of structural correction.

✅ Key Reforms:

• Abolition of intermediaries (Zamindars were removed)
• Tenancy reforms – ensuring farmers got legal rights over the land they tilled
• Reduction of land revenue burden

But despite these reforms, agricultural productivity remained low. Why?

• The reforms were uneven and slow across states.
• The Green Revolution had not started yet.
• Technology, irrigation, credit—these critical elements were still missing.

Think of this era as correcting a sick patient’s diet, but not yet providing strong medicine.

Phase 3: Green Revolution Era (1965–1980s)

– The Golden Phase

If Indian agriculture was a movie, this was its heroic comeback scene.

With the introduction of the Green Revolution, a dramatic shift happened.

🚀 Key Highlights:

• Introduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of seeds (especially for wheat and rice)
• Irrigation projects scaled up
• Use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and modern machinery
• Launch of schemes like:
  • Command Area Development Programme
  • Integrated Watershed Management Programme
  • Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme

🎯 Results:

• Massive jump in productivity, especially in north-western India (Punjab, Haryana, Western UP)
• India moved from being food-deficient to food surplus
• Inspired mini-revolutions:
  • White Revolution – milk production
  • Blue Revolution – aquaculture
  • Yellow Revolution – oilseeds
  • Gene Revolution – seed technology

But this success came with regional imbalance, favoring certain states and crops.

Phase 4: 1980s to Present

– Plateau, Inequity, and the Call for Sustainable Modernisation

Post-1980s, while productivity did not collapse, the pace of improvement slowed.

🤔 Why?

• Policy shifted from productivity focus to equity and rural welfare.
• Irrigation gaps, credit bottlenecks, and fragmented landholdings held farmers back.
• Heavy dependence on monsoons in most regions.
• Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides began to damage soil health and water quality.

India’s productivity today is one-third of the global average, despite having the potential to produce double.

⚠️ Key Issues Today:

• Large cultivable area, but small investment capacity of farmers
• Use of non-scientific harvesting techniques
• Poor agricultural infrastructure
• Increasing population and rural poverty

🌱 What Needs to be Done?

Productivity improvement today is not just a possibility, it’s a necessity.

But the goal must be:

✅ Sustainable productivity, not reckless maximisation
✅ Respect for ecological balance and social welfare

We must focus on:

• Scientific farming methods
• Expansion of micro-irrigation
• Credit access for small farmers
• Crop choices based on climate suitability
• Promotion of organic and natural farming

Factors Responsible for Low Agricultural Productivity in India

India has immense potential in agriculture—with its vast arable land, multiple agro-climatic zones, and a large rural workforce. Yet, agricultural productivity (i.e., yield per unit area) remains significantly lower than global averages.

Let us understand why through multiple perspectives—social, economic, institutional, and technological

1. Rural Social Environment: The Mindset Barrier

“Jaisa soch, waisa fasal” – The way we think shapes the way we farm.

• Many Indian farmers are still illiterate, conservative, superstitious, and resistant to change.
• This leads to low adoption of scientific methods, new seed varieties, or even basic soil testing.
• Farming decisions are often made based on tradition or astrology, not evidence or weather data.

✅ Reform Suggestion: Massive investment in rural agricultural extension and farm education programs to shift mindsets.

2. High Land-Man Ratio: Overcrowding on Agricultural Land

Too many people, too little land—this is the core of India’s agrarian distress.

• About 228 million rural workers are engaged in agriculture (Census 2011).
• Rising population leads to fragmentation of landholdings → uneconomic and scattered plots.
• A farmer owning half an acre can neither mechanize nor invest in irrigation or diversification.

✅ Reform Suggestion: Promote land consolidation, cooperative farming, and alternate livelihoods.

3. Land Degradation: A Silent Killer

You can’t expect a good harvest from sick soil.

• Nearly 50% of India’s land is degraded due to:
  • Deforestation
  • Overgrazing
  • Chemical overuse
  • Poor irrigation practices
• 5% of land is damaged beyond use.
• Result: 33–67% yield losses due to soil erosion, salinity, and nutrient exhaustion.

✅ Reform Suggestion: Emphasize soil health management, organic farming, and watershed development.

4. Existence of Shadow Zamindars (Big Farmers)

Zamindari may be gone legally, but socially and economically, it still exists in many villages.

• Large farmers still control tenancy terms, land leasing, and informal rent systems.
• Small tenants remain vulnerable, with no incentive to invest in land improvements.
• These shadow landlords often block land reforms and modernization efforts.

✅ Reform Suggestion: Strengthen tenancy rights, ensure legal recognition of land leasing, and monitor informal land control.

5. Lack of Reliable Credit and Exploitative Market Channels

A farmer today still borrows from a moneylender, sells to a middleman, and gets the least out of the entire value chain.

• Institutional credit is inadequate or inaccessible for small and marginal farmers.
• High interest rates, delays in disbursement, and collateral demands create barriers.
• Market access is controlled by middlemen who reduce farmer profits.
• MSP coverage is limited to a few crops and regions.

✅ Reform Suggestion: Expand Kisan Credit Cards, support Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and improve e-NAM platforms.

6. Technological Backwardness

The Green Revolution helped some regions—but left many others behind.

• 60% of cultivable land still depends on rainfed agriculture.
• Irrigation infrastructure is limited, especially in eastern and central India.
• Modern farm machinery, drip irrigation, and climate-smart practices are still uncommon in small farms.

✅ Reform Suggestion: Scale up irrigation (PMKSY), provide subsidies for equipment, and promote region-specific agri-tech solutions.

✅ Conclusion: The Way Forward

India’s low agricultural productivity is not due to one factor, but a web of interrelated issues—social, institutional, technological, and infrastructural.

Improving productivity is not about adding more fertilizers or machines alone. It requires a comprehensive strategy that:

• Empowers farmers with knowledge and rights
• Restores the health of land and water
• Creates fair markets and accessible credit
• Respects ecological limits while aiming for higher output

In short, the goal is “Smart, Sustainable, and Inclusive Agriculture.”

Measures to Raise Agricultural Productivity in India

Agricultural productivity is not just about growing more—it’s about growing smarter, sustainably, and inclusively. India has initiated a range of socio-economic, institutional, and technological reforms to uplift its agricultural performance.

Let’s explore the key measures required to raise productivity:

1. Proper Implementation of Land Reforms

“Zameen usi ki, jo jameen pe kaam kare” — Land to the tiller isn’t just a slogan, it’s a right.

• Though land reforms were introduced post-Independence, their success was limited to states like West Bengal and Kerala.
• Elsewhere, benami ownership, lack of records, and political resistance stalled reforms.
• Without secure land rights, farmers hesitate to invest in long-term improvements.

🔁 Way Forward:

• Accelerate digitization of land records
• Legally recognize land tenancy and ensure land consolidation schemes

2. Farmer Education and Awareness

A literate and trained farmer is more productive than an illiterate farmer with land and tools.

• Many small farmers are unaware of:
  • Modern crop varieties
  • Soil health management
  • Efficient irrigation
• This knowledge gap directly reduces productivity.

🔁 Way Forward:

• Strengthen Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)
• Expand Agri-extension services and use digital platforms (e.g., Kisan Suvidha app)

3. Efficient Land and Water Resource Management

Land is the canvas, water is the paint—without both, farming cannot flourish.

• India has 329 million hectares of degraded land.
• Improper land use and water mismanagement reduce per hectare yields.

🔁 Way Forward:

• Promote Integrated Watershed Management
• Rejuvenate traditional water bodies
• Implement micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler) widely

4. Package Programmes for Modern Farming

Green Revolution worked not because of one factor—but because it was a complete package.

• Productivity improves when multiple inputs work together:
  • HYV seeds
  • Irrigation facilities
  • Fertilizers
  • Machinery
  • Training

🔁 Way Forward:

• Ensure region-specific Package Programmes
• Extend Green Revolution benefits to eastern and rainfed areas

5. Crop Protection Mechanisms

A good harvest can be destroyed overnight by pests if not protected.

• Around 5% of crops are lost annually due to:
  • Pests, insects, plant diseases
  • Lack of knowledge about pest control

🔁 Way Forward:

• Conduct pest surveillance and early warning systems
• Promote bio-pesticides and Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

6. Access to Timely Credit and Fair Marketing

No investment, no productivity—it’s that simple.

• Modern agriculture requires:
  • Pre-sowing investment
  • Access to seeds, fertilizers, labor
• Yet, credit is hard to get for small farmers.
• Marketing is dominated by middlemen, resulting in poor returns.

🔁 Way Forward:

• Strengthen Kisan Credit Cards, SHGs, and co-operative banks
• Empower Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs)
• Expand e-NAM and remove barriers in APMC reforms

7. Investment in Research & Development (R&D)

Agricultural R&D is the backbone of future productivity.

• Institutions like ICAR and State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) are vital.
• But their innovations must reach the field.

🔁 Way Forward:

• Bridge the lab-to-land gap
• Promote climate-resilient crops, precision farming, and AI-based advisory tools

✅ Conclusion: Towards a Second Green Revolution

India’s future lies in raising productivity sustainably. This can only be done through:

• Empowered farmers 👨‍🌾
• Healthy soils 🌱
• Smart water use 💧
• Effective markets 🛒
• Inclusive policies 📜

If the 1st Green Revolution was input-based, the 2nd must be knowledge-driven, resource-efficient, and environmentally sound.

Cropping Intensity in India

India, with its large and ever-growing population, faces a unique agricultural challenge—how to produce more food without expanding land under cultivation.

🧭 Two Options to Meet Rising Demand:

1. Expand Net Sown Area – But this has almost saturated. Since Independence, the net sown area increased by just 20%, and now there’s little room left for further expansion.
2. Intensify Cropping – i.e., grow more crops on the same land. This is now the only sustainable and scalable option.

🔍 What is Cropping Intensity?

Cropping intensity refers to the number of crops raised from the same field in a single agricultural year.

It is calculated as:

Cropping Intensity (%) = (Gross Cropped Area / Net Sown Area) × 100

• Net Sown Area – Actual area sown with crops during a year.
• Gross Cropped Area – Total area sown, including multiple cropping on the same land.

🧠 Interpretation:

• Higher cropping intensity ⇒ more than one crop grown per year on the same land.
• Indicates better utilization of land and higher productivity per unit of arable land.

📊 India’s Cropping Intensity Status

• National Average: 137.3%
• Top Performers:
  • Delhi – 204%
  • Punjab – 189%
  • Sikkim – 186%
  • West Bengal – 181.13%
  • Haryana – 178.9%

🧠 These are mainly agriculturally advanced regions with access to irrigation, input support, and robust local markets.

• Low Cropping Intensity (<120%):
  • North-Eastern States
  • Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand

🚀 Factors that Enhance Cropping Intensity

Let’s understand the drivers that allow farmers to grow more than one crop per year:

1. Irrigation

• Removes dependence on monsoon.
• Allows sowing of a second (rabi) or third (summer) crop.
• Example: Punjab and Haryana’s success due to canals and tubewells.

2. Use of Fertilizers

• Replenishes soil nutrients, making fallow periods unnecessary.
• Supports back-to-back cropping.

3. Crop Rotation

• Logical sequence of crops (e.g., pulses before cereals) to:
  • Maintain soil fertility
  • Optimize nutrient usage
  • Example: Gram → Wheat rotation

4. Mixed Cropping

• Growing complementary crops together (e.g., wheat + gram).
• Balances nutrient consumption and reduces risk of crop failure.

5. Relay Cropping

• Sowing the next crop before the first one is harvested.
• Example: Sugarcane followed by rice or wheat.

6. Selective Mechanization

• Use of tractors, tillers, harvesters saves time.
• Ensures minimum gap between two crops.

7. Fast Maturing Varieties

• Early harvest allows time for sowing an additional crop.
• Example: Short-duration rice or pulses.

8. Plant Protection Measures

• Pesticides, insecticides, and weed control prevent crop loss.
• Seed treatment boosts germination and resistance.

These are more effective when implemented collectively at the village or block level.

🛠️ Complementary Measures to Enhance Cropping Intensity

• Soil Improvement: Land leveling, bunding, salinity control, terracing
• Integrated Farming: Combine crop farming with animal husbandry and fisheries

🎯 Conclusion: Intensification is the Future

Since horizontal expansion is no longer viable, vertical intensification (cropping intensity) is India’s path to ensuring food security, farm income, and efficient land use.

By focusing on:

• Knowledge dissemination 📚
• Input access 💰
• Institutional support 🏛️

India can scale cropping intensity sustainably, with benefits flowing not just to the farmers but to the entire economy.

Crop Combination in India

🔍 What is Crop Combination?

Crop Combination refers to the association or pattern of different crops grown together in a particular area during a specific time period.

In simple terms: it is “which crops grow together” and “how many crops are grown” in a region during an agricultural year.

📚 Why is Crop Combination Important?

1. True Picture of Crop Distribution
   • It shows how different crops are spatially arranged.
   • Offers a realistic understanding of agricultural practices.
2. Foundation for Agricultural Regionalization
   • Helps classify regions based on dominant cropping patterns.
   • Useful in planning, resource allocation, and policy formulation.
3. Reflects Ecological and Socio-Economic Stability
   • Stable crop combinations often indicate suitable climate, soil, and market or cultural preferences that persist over time.
4. Helps Analyze Crop Strengths
   • Crop combination analysis reveals the relative dominance of each crop in different districts or regions.

🗺️ Crop Combinations in India

In a country like India—where agriculture is diverse due to varying climatic zones, soils, irrigation access, and cultural preferences—crop combinations vary widely:

• In most regions, no single crop dominates entirely.
• Instead, you find stable crop assemblages based on what grows best together in that particular environment.

For example:

• Punjab & Haryana: Wheat + Rice
• West Bengal: Rice + Jute + Pulses
• Maharashtra: Cotton + Jowar + Pulses
• Southern Plateau: Millets + Oilseeds

Plantation zones (e.g., tea in Assam, coffee in Karnataka) are exceptions, where monoculture dominates.

🔬 Methods of Crop Combination Analysis

Scholars like Jasbir Singh and Weaver developed mathematical techniques (like Weaver’s Method) to calculate crop combinations statistically.

• These techniques consider:
  • Percentage area under each crop
  • Total cropped area
  • Standard deviation from the mean

But for UPSC or conceptual understanding, it’s enough to know that these methods help in classifying regions based on number and dominance of crops.

✅ Significance for Planning and Policy

• Helps decide which regions to promote particular crops.
• Aids in crop diversification programs.
• Essential for climate-resilient farming strategies.
• Supports agricultural zoning, insurance, and subsidy targeting.

🧠 Final Thought

Crop combination is like the “agricultural fingerprint” of a region—shaped by nature, economy, and culture.

Understanding it gives policymakers, planners, and UPSC aspirants a better grip on how Indian agriculture is regionally diverse yet patterned, and how this knowledge can be harnessed for sustainable growth.