Philosophy in the Indian Tradition
Meaning of Indian Philosophy (Darsana)
Indian philosophy is commonly referred to as “Darsana.”
The Sanskrit word Darsana literally means “to see” or “to realise.”
Thus, philosophy in India does not simply mean speculation about reality; it means direct insight into the nature of existence.
Indian philosophical traditions began to evolve around the 6th century BCE, during a period of intense intellectual and spiritual exploration in the Indian subcontinent. This was the time when many philosophical systems and religious movements emerged, including Buddhism, Jainism, and various Vedic philosophical schools.
These traditions attempted to answer fundamental questions such as:
- What is the nature of reality?
- What is the purpose of human life?
- What happens after death?
- How can human beings overcome suffering?
The Four Purusharthas – Goals of Human Life
Ancient Indian thinkers believed that human life should pursue four fundamental goals, known as the Purusharthas.
| Purushartha | Meaning | Purpose |
| Dharma | Righteousness, moral duty | Ethical living and social harmony |
| Artha | Wealth and material prosperity | Economic stability and livelihood |
| Kama | Desire and pleasure | Emotional and physical fulfillment |
| Moksha | Liberation from the cycle of birth and death | Ultimate spiritual freedom |
Understanding the Balance
Indian philosophy emphasises balance among these goals.
- Dharma provides moral guidance.
- Artha and Kama fulfil worldly needs.
- Moksha represents the ultimate spiritual aim.
Various classical texts elaborated these goals:
- Dharmashastra → explained duties and ethics.
- Arthashastra → discussed governance and economic prosperity.
- Kama Sutra → explored emotional and physical fulfilment.
However, philosophical traditions primarily focused on Moksha, because liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth (Samsara) was considered the highest achievement of human life.
Classification of Indian Philosophies
Astika and Nastika
Indian philosophical schools are broadly classified into Astika (orthodox) and Nastika (heterodox) traditions.
The classification is based primarily on acceptance or rejection of the authority of the Vedas.
| Aspect | Astika (Orthodox) | Nastika (Heterodox) |
| Authority of Vedas | Accepted | Rejected |
| Belief in God | Accepted in most schools | Rejected or questioned |
| Belief in Atman (soul) | Accepted | Often rejected or reinterpreted |
| Path to Liberation | Vedic rituals, knowledge, meditation | Ethical conduct, practical effort |
| Examples | Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, Vedanta | Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika, Charvaka |
Important Clarification
The terms Astika and Nastika do not simply mean “theist” and “atheist.” Instead, the distinction mainly concerns acceptance of Vedic authority.
Together, these schools reflect the pluralistic and intellectually vibrant nature of Indian civilisation, where multiple philosophical viewpoints coexisted and debated with each other.
Astika Philosophies (Orthodox Schools)
The Astika schools, also called the Shad-Darsanas (six philosophies), accept the authority of the Vedas.
| School | Founder | Key Focus | Path to Moksha |
| Samkhya | Kapila | Dualism: Prakriti + Purusha | Knowledge (Jnana) |
| Yoga | Patanjali | Practical discipline and meditation | Control of body-mind-senses |
| Nyaya | Gautama | Logic and critical thinking | Logical inference and correct knowledge |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada | Atomism and material categories | Scientific inquiry into nature |
| Mimamsa | Jaimini | Vedic rituals and karma | Performance of yajnas |
| Vedanta | Badarayana (Vyasa) | Ultimate unity of Atman and Brahman | Self-realization and spiritual awakening |
Astika Philosophies is discussed in detail in the CDH notes on Ancient and Medieval India, under the chapter “Foundation of Vedic Thoughts and Aryan Society”. You can access the notes here.
Nastika Philosophies
Philosophy of Buddhism
Historical Context and Nature of Buddhism
Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE. Unlike many philosophers who engaged in abstract metaphysical speculation, Buddha was primarily a practical reformer.
His central concern was very simple yet profound: human suffering (dukkha) and its solution.
Therefore, Buddha deliberately avoided debates about metaphysical concepts like Atman (soul) and Brahman (ultimate reality) because he considered them fruitless controversies that did not help solve the real problem of suffering.
Instead, Buddhism focused on ethical living, mental discipline, and wisdom.
Fundamental Philosophical Concepts of Buddhism
The philosophical foundation of Buddhism rests on three core ideas:
(1) Anicca – Impermanence
Buddhism teaches that everything in the universe is constantly changing.
Nothing is permanent:
- Physical objects change
- Emotions change
- Relationships change
- Even our body and mind continuously evolve
This concept is called Anicca (impermanence).
Implication: Attachment to things that are temporary leads to suffering.
(2) Anatta / Anatman – Non-Self
Buddhism rejects the idea of a permanent, unchanging Atman (soul).
According to Buddha: What we call the “self” is actually a collection of changing elements → body, sensations, perceptions, mental formations, consciousness Thus, there is no eternal soul. This idea is called Anatta (non-self).
This concept revolutionised Indian philosophy because most earlier traditions believed in an eternal soul.
(3) Pratītya-samutpāda (Dependent Origination)
Another crucial Buddhist concept is dependent origination.
It states: Nothing exists independently; everything arises due to causes and conditions.
For example: A plant exists because of soil, water, sunlight, and seed. Similarly, suffering arises because of certain causes.
Thus, reality is interdependent, not independent.
Nirvana – The Ultimate Goal
The ultimate goal of Buddhism is Nirvana. The word Nirvana literally means “blowing out”, like extinguishing a flame.
What is extinguished? → Desires, Attachments, Ignorance
When these are extinguished, the cycle of Samsara (birth and rebirth) ends.
Thus, Nirvana represents liberation from suffering, freedom from rebirth and ultimate peace
It is considered the summum bonum (highest good) of Buddhism.
Core Tenets of Buddhism
The Four Noble Truths
The philosophical foundation of Buddhism is the Four Noble Truths, which explain the nature of human suffering.
1. Life is full of suffering (Dukkha)
Human life inevitably involves suffering such as birth, disease, aging, death, separation from loved ones, unfulfilled desires
2. Cause of suffering (Tanha)
The root cause of suffering is Tanha, meaning → desire, craving, attachmentHumans constantly desire things—wealth, power, pleasure—which leads to dissatisfaction.
3. End of suffering (Nirodha)
If desires are eliminated, suffering also ends.This state is called Nirodha, which ultimately leads to Nirvana.
4. Path to end suffering – The Eightfold Path
Buddha provided a practical path called the Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marg).
The Eightfold Path
The Eightfold Path is a guide for ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.
Wisdom (Prajna)
- Right View – Understanding reality correctly
- Right Intention – Cultivating positive thoughts and renunciation
Ethical Conduct (Sila)
- Right Speech – Avoid lying or harmful speech
- Right Action – Ethical behavior
- Right Livelihood – Honest and ethical occupation
Mental Discipline (Samadhi)
- Right Effort – Cultivating positive states of mind
- Right Mindfulness – Awareness of thoughts and actions
- Right Concentration – Deep meditation
Together, these form a balanced path of moral and spiritual development.
Karma and Rebirth
Buddhism also accepts the doctrine of Karma.
- Every action has consequences.
- Good actions lead to positive outcomes.
- Bad actions lead to suffering.
These karmic consequences determine future rebirths in the cycle of Samsara. The ultimate aim is to break this cycle through Nirvana.
Compassion and Ahimsa
Another important Buddhist value is Karuna (compassion). Followers are encouraged to practice compassion toward all beings, non-violence (Ahimsa), kindness and tolerance
Thus, Buddhism emphasises ethical living and harmony with society.
Revolutionary Nature of Buddhism
Buddhism introduced several revolutionary ideas:
- It denied the existence of an eternal soul
- It did not emphasise a creator God
- It rejected excessive rituals
- It advocated the Middle Path between luxury and extreme austerity
Thus, Buddhism presented a practical and rational approach to liberation.
Philosophy of Jainism
Now let us understand Jain philosophy, another powerful Nastika tradition that emerged around the same time.
Jainism was propagated by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, in the 6th century BCE.
The central focus of Jainism is strict ethical discipline and non-violence.
Fundamental Ideas of Jain Philosophy
1. Dualistic Nature of the Universe
Mahavira believed that the universe consists of two fundamental realities:
(1) Jiva – Soul → Conscious, Eternal, Capable of liberationEvery living being possesses a Jiva.
(2) Ajiva – Non-Soul
Ajiva includes → matter, time, space, motion, restThus, Jainism presents a dualistic worldview consisting of Jiva and Ajiva.
2. Karma as Material Substance
In Jainism, Karma is not merely moral action. It is believed to be a subtle material substance that attaches to the soul when a person performs actions driven by passions.
These karmic particles bind the soul, cause rebirth, obstruct spiritual purity. Liberation requires removing these karmic particles.
Core Principles of Jainism
1. Ahimsa – Non-Violence
The most important principle of Jainism is Ahimsa (non-violence). It means avoiding harm to any living being in thought, in speech or in action. This is why many Jains follow strict vegetarianism and avoid activities that harm life.
2. Anekantavada – Multiplicity of Truth
Jain philosophy recognises that reality is complex and multifaceted. No single viewpoint can capture the whole truth. This principle is called Anekantavada, meaning many-sided reality.
A famous illustration is the story of blind men describing an elephant:
- One touches the leg → says elephant is like a pillar
- Another touches the trunk → says it is like a snake
- Another touches the ear → says it is like a fan
Each perspective is partially correct but incomplete.
3. Syadvada – Theory of Conditional Predication
Closely related to Anekantavada is Syadvada. The word Syat means “maybe” or “from a certain perspective.”
According to this doctrine → All statements are conditionally true, depending on viewpoint. Thus, truth must always be expressed with intellectual humility.
4. Saptabhanginaya – Sevenfold Logic
Jain philosophy further develops this idea through Saptabhanginaya, the theory of seven possible judgments.
Any statement may be:
- True
- False
- Both true and false
- Indescribable
- True and indescribable
- False and indescribable
- True, false and indescribable
This sophisticated logical framework reflects Jainism’s tolerance and intellectual openness.
5. Aparigraha – Non-Possession
Another important principle is Aparigraha, meaning → limiting possessions and reducing attachment to material things Excessive attachment leads to karmic bondage. Thus, simplicity is essential for liberation.
Ethical Framework of Jainism
1. Five Vows (Vratas)
Jain ethics are built around five vows. For monks these are Mahavratas (great vows), while for laypersons they are Anuvratas (smaller vows).
The five vows are:
- Ahimsa – Non-violence
- Satya – Truthfulness
- Asteya – Non-stealing
- Brahmacharya – Celibacy / self-control
- Aparigraha – Non-possession
These vows prevent the accumulation of karma.
2. Triratna (Three Jewels)
Liberation in Jainism is achieved through the Triratna, also called Ratnatraya.
1. Samyak Darshana (Right Faith)
Belief in the truth of Jain teachings.
2. Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge)
Understanding the nature of reality, including → Jiva, Ajiva, Karma, Liberation
3. Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct)
Living according to ethical discipline, especially the five vows.Together, these three jewels purify the soul.
Philosophy of the Ajivikas
Historical Background
The Ajivika school was founded by Makkhali Gosala in the 6th century BCE, the same intellectual period that produced Buddha and Mahavira.
At that time, India was witnessing intense philosophical debates. The Ajivikas emerged as a major rival to both Buddhism and Jainism, particularly in questions related to human freedom and destiny.
The philosophy of Ajivikas is often described as Niyativada, meaning the doctrine of absolute determinism.
Central Concept: Niyati (Determinism)
The foundation of Ajivika philosophy was Niyati, meaning fate or destiny.
According to Ajivikas:
- Every event in the universe is pre-determined.
- Human beings have no free will.
- Personal effort cannot change destiny.
Thus, whether one experiences happiness or suffering, it is already preordained.
This idea directly contradicted the Buddhist and Jain emphasis on karma and moral effort.
Karma and Rebirth
Ajivikas accepted the existence of rebirth, but rejected the karmic explanation of rebirth.
According to them:
- The soul passes through a fixed sequence of births and deaths.
- This process continues automatically until the soul reaches liberation (moksha).
Therefore:
- Human actions do not influence the cycle of rebirth.
- Everything unfolds according to cosmic destiny.
Ascetic Lifestyle
Despite believing that destiny cannot be changed, Ajivikas practised extreme asceticism.
Their reasoning was philosophical: Since suffering is predetermined, the wise person should accept and endure it with discipline.
Thus, they emphasised → severe austerities, renunciation, self-control
Atheistic Orientation
Ajivikas also rejected the idea of a creator God. Their worldview was naturalistic and fatalistic
The universe was governed not by divine will but by inevitable cosmic laws of fate.
Loss of Ajivika Texts
Unfortunately, the original scriptures of the Ajivikas are lost.
Our knowledge about them comes from secondary sources, especially Buddhist texts and Jain texts. These sources often criticised Ajivika ideas, which means historians must reconstruct their philosophy carefully.
Philosophy of the Ajnana School
Meaning of Ajnana
The word Ajnana literally means “non-knowledge” or “ignorance.” This philosophical school represented a radical form of scepticism.
Its leading teacher was Sanjaya Belatthiputta, a contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira.
Core Idea: Philosophical Scepticism
The Ajnana philosophers believed that certain knowledge about metaphysical questions is impossible.
For example, they argued that we cannot know:
- whether the soul exists
- whether there is an afterlife
- whether karma is real
- whether a creator God exists
Even if such knowledge were possible, they argued that it would be useless for attaining salvation.
Suspension of Judgment
Therefore, Ajnana philosophers adopted a principle of intellectual neutrality.
They deliberately refused to make definite statements about metaphysical questions such as → existence or non-existence of soul, karma, free will, creator God, good and evil, afterlife
This approach resembles later traditions of philosophical scepticism seen in other parts of the world.
Opposition to Other Religions
Ajnana thinkers opposed both Buddhism and Jainism because these traditions claimed to provide definite knowledge about liberation and reality.
Philosophy of Akiriyavada
Meaning of Akiriyavada
The term Akiriyavada literally means “doctrine of non-action.” This philosophical view was taught by Purana Kassapa, who lived around the 6th century BCE, during the time of Buddha and Mahavira.
Core Idea: Non-Effect of Actions
Akiriyavada argued that human actions have no moral consequences.
According to this philosophy → the body acts independently of the soul; actions do not produce merit or demerit
Thus:
- good deeds do not produce reward
- bad deeds do not produce punishment
This view directly rejected the doctrine of karma.
Ethical Implications
Because actions were believed to have no moral consequences, Akiriyavada rejected the moral structure found in many Indian traditions.
This doctrine challenged the foundations of Buddhist ethics, Jain ethical discipline and Vedic moral ideas
Philosophy of the Charvakas (Lokayata)
Among the Nastika traditions, the Charvaka philosophy is perhaps the most radical and intellectually distinctive.
It represents the materialist tradition of ancient India.
Meaning and Background
The Charvakas are also called Lokayata.
The word Lokayata means: “that which is prevalent among the common people.”
This suggests that the philosophy was grounded in practical worldly experience rather than metaphysical speculation.
The tradition is associated with:
- Brihaspati (considered founder)
- Ajita Kesakambali, an early materialist thinker.
Core Principles of Charvaka Philosophy
1. Materialism
The Charvakas believed that only matter (bhuta) exists, reality is purely physical They denied the existence of soul, gods, supernatural beings, afterlife
According to them, consciousness itself arises from material elements.
2. Empiricism
Charvakas accepted Pratyaksha (direct perception) as the only valid source of knowledge. They rejected other means of knowledge used in Indian philosophy such as Anumana (inference) and Shabda (scriptural testimony)
Thus, their epistemology was strictly empirical.
If something could not be experienced through the senses, it could not be considered real.
3. Rejection of Karma and Rebirth
Charvakas dismissed the doctrines of karma, rebirth and liberation (moksha). They believed that death ends all consciousness and individuality. Therefore, there is no afterlife.
Because of this belief, their philosophy was called Ucchedavada, meaning the Doctrine of Annihilation after death.
4. Hedonism
Since life is short and ends with death, Charvakas believed that people should enjoy life fully.
Their famous principle can be summarised as: “Pleasure is the highest good.” Thus, they encouraged pursuit of happiness, enjoyment of sensual pleasures, rejection of unnecessary austerities
They criticised ascetic practices followed by Buddhists and Jains.
5. Criticism of Religion
Charvakas were strong critics of religious authority.
They argued that priests used rituals to exploit people, scriptures were unreliable, religious institutions created fear of the afterlife
Thus, Charvakas represented one of the earliest traditions of philosophical atheism and rational scepticism in India.
Texts Associated with Charvaka
Although most original Charvaka works are lost, two texts are traditionally associated with the school:
- Brihaspati Sutra (attributed to Brihaspati)
- Tattvopaplava-simha by Jayarasi Bhatta
Conclusion: Diversity of Nastika Thought
The Nastika traditions reveal the extraordinary intellectual diversity of ancient India.
Each philosophy addressed fundamental questions differently:
- Buddhism → suffering and liberation through the Middle Path
- Jainism → liberation through extreme ethical discipline
- Ajivikas → absolute determinism (Niyati)
- Ajnana → radical scepticism
- Akiriyavada → denial of moral consequences of action
- Charvaka → materialism and empirical rationalism
Together, these philosophies demonstrate that ancient Indian thought was not monolithic but deeply pluralistic, with intense debates about fate, knowledge, morality, and the nature of reality.