Development – A Governance Perspective

When we talk about development, we must first clear a common misunderstanding. Development is not merely economic growth, not just GDP numbers, highways, or factories.

According to the United Nations, development is a comprehensive economic, social, and political process aimed at improving the overall quality of life of people.

In simple terms—development is about people.

It includes → Economic growth, Social inclusion, Environmental sustainability, Protection of human rights and freedoms

Most importantly, development is a dynamic and continuous process, not a one-time achievement. Societies constantly move from one stage to another, ideally in a positive, inclusive, and sustainable direction.

Development as a Process, Not an Event

Development does not happen automatically. It unfolds through certain key elements, which together form the development process.

1️⃣ Planned and Phased Implementation

Development requires planning, timelines, and clear targets.

• Example: Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)
  It aimed at “Housing for All” through phased implementation, with defined roles for Centre and States. This shows how development works step-by-step, not overnight.

👉 Lesson: Without planning, development becomes ad-hoc and ineffective.

2️⃣ Participatory Governance

True development cannot be imposed from the top. It must involve citizens, civil society, and local bodies.

• Example: Gram Sabha under MGNREGA
  Villagers discuss, approve, and monitor development works—this is bottom-up planning.

👉 Development becomes meaningful when people are partners, not just beneficiaries.

3️⃣ Dynamic and Contextual Nature

Development policies must adapt to changing realities—economic, political, and social.

• Example: Replacement of Planning Commission with NITI Aayog
  This shift reflects India’s move towards cooperative federalism, flexibility, and real-time policy thinking.

👉 Governance systems evolve as society evolves.

4️⃣ Institutional Collaboration

No single institution can handle development alone.

• Example: National Health Mission
  It brings together Central and State governments, NGOs, and global bodies like World Health Organization to improve healthcare delivery.

👉 Development succeeds when institutions work in synergy.

5️⃣ Monitoring and Evaluation

What gets measured, gets improved.

• Example: Aspirational Districts Programme
  Uses real-time dashboards, rankings, and indicators to track progress in backward districts.

👉 Monitoring ensures accountability and mid-course correction.

Human Resource Development (HRD)

Human Resource Development means investing in people—their education, health, skills, and capabilities—so they can contribute meaningfully to national development.

In essence: A nation develops when its people develop.

📚 Approaches to Human Development

1️⃣ Income Approach
→ Higher income = more freedom and choices.

2️⃣ Welfare Approach
→ People are passive recipients.
→ Government maximizes welfare spending.

3️⃣ Basic Needs Approach
→ Focuses on minimum essentials, ignoring individual choice.
→ Six Basic Needs: Health, Education, Food, Water, Sanitation, Housing.

4️⃣ Capability Approach
→ Associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.
→ Emphasizes expanding human capabilities, not just income.

👉 This approach is most widely accepted in modern governance.

🚧 Challenges in HRD (India)

• Poor learning outcomes – Highlighted by Annual Status of Education Report
• Skill mismatch – Around 30% graduates are unemployable
• Teacher quality issues – Training gaps, regulatory failures
• Weak healthcare access – Especially in rural areas (NFHS)
• Limited vocational training – Skill India yet to reach scale

✅ Measures to Improve HRD

• Project-based learning in schools
• Stronger industry–academia collaboration
• Continuous teacher training (Singapore model)
• Expansion of telemedicine
• Incubation centres in colleges

Skill Development

Skill development acts as a crucial bridge between education and employment by transforming academic knowledge into practical abilities. In a competitive economy, it equips individuals with industry-relevant skills, thereby enhancing employability, productivity, and workforce adaptability.

Success of Skill Development Programmes in India

• Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
  Helps informal sector workers obtain formal certification for existing skills.
• Sector Skill Councils (SSCs)
  Ensure that training programmes are aligned with industry requirements.
• International Collaborations
  Partnerships with countries such as Germany and Japan improve training quality and open foreign employment opportunities.
• Skill Universities
  Institutions like Delhi Skill and Entrepreneurship University integrate academics with hands-on practical skills.
• Women-Centric Schemes
  Initiatives such as Nari Shakti promote skill training and economic empowerment of women.
• Minority Schemes
  Programmes like Nai Manzil, USTAAD, and MANAS support traditional skills and promote economic inclusion.

Linkages between Education and Skill Development

• Basic Knowledge
  Subjects like mathematics and science form the foundation for technical and vocational skills.
• Literacy and Numeracy
  Essential for advanced training as well as routine job functions.
• Soft Skills
  Education helps develop communication, teamwork, and problem-solving abilities.
• Research and Innovation
  Higher education institutions (e.g., IITs) support innovation, R&D, and advanced skill creation.

Linkages between Skill Development and Employment

• Job Readiness
  Short-term courses (e.g., Google Career Certificates) improve immediate employability.
• Entrepreneurship
  Skill training supports self-employment and startups (e.g., Startup India).
• Upskilling and Reskilling
  Online platforms help professionals remain relevant in changing job markets.
• Remote Work Skills
  Digital courses teach tools required for online and gig-based employment.

Collaborative Governance: Role of Government and Private Sector

Government–private coordination refers to collaborative efforts between the public sector and private enterprises in the planning, financing, and execution of development projects. Such coordination ensures efficient resource utilisation, faster implementation, and improved service delivery, especially in large-scale infrastructure projects.

Example: Gati Shakti Yojana represents an integrated approach to infrastructure development.

Why Government–Private Coordination is Essential

• Policy Support
  Government must simplify procedures and provide a clear, stable regulatory framework.
• Public–Private Partnerships (PPP)
  Private investment supplements limited public resources.
  Example: Noida–Yamuna Expressway.
• Technology and Innovation
  Private sector contributes modern technology, global best practices, and efficiency.
• Skill Development
  Joint training initiatives ensure availability of a skilled workforce.
• Monitoring and Evaluation
  Shared oversight improves transparency, accountability, and timely project completion.

Cooperation and Partnership in Development

• Cooperation and partnership among various sectors are essential components of development discourse.
• Such partnerships bridge sectoral gaps and foster a culture of collaboration and team spirit, leading to better development outcomes.
• In India, Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) have facilitated infrastructure creation such as roads and airports by combining government support with private expertise.
• In health and education, initiatives like school health programmes and National Deworming Day demonstrate the benefits of coordinated action.
• In rural development, schemes such as MGNREGA, NRLM, and IWMP collectively address employment generation, livelihood enhancement, and water management.
• Benefits of cooperation include:
  • Innovation through shared ideas
  • Efficient use of resources
  • Avoidance of duplication
  • Inclusive service delivery

Challenges Associated with the Development Process in India

• Economic Inequality
  As per the World Inequality Lab (2024), the top 1% owns 40.1% of national wealth, indicating a deepening economic divide.
• Environmental Degradation
  Rapid development has led to pollution and resource depletion.
  Example: 14 of the world’s 20 most polluted cities are in India (IQAir Report 2023).
• Jobless Growth
  Despite high GDP growth (6.5–7%), employment growth remained low at 1.9% annually.
• Bureaucratic Red Tape and Slow Implementation
  Regulatory hurdles delay projects.
  Example: Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC).
• Corruption and Misallocation of Resources
  Leakages in schemes like PDS reduce welfare effectiveness.
• Neglect of Education and Health
  Public spending stagnated at 2.9% of GDP (2019–23).
  Rural areas still face healthcare staff shortages despite improved doctor–population ratios.
• Gender Disparity
  India ranked 129th out of 146 countries in the Global Gender Gap Report 2024.

Way Forward

• Policy Formulation and Planning: Set clear, measurable goals based on needs assessment. Example: Smart Cities Mission.
• Stakeholder Engagement: Involve citizens, civil society, and local bodies. Example: Swachh Bharat Mission.
• Legislation and Regulation: Establish strong legal frameworks. Example: Goods and Services Tax (GST).
• Resource Allocation: Ensure adequate funding for implementation. Example: MGNREGA.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Use performance indicators and feedback mechanisms.
  Example: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana.

Dependence on Donor Agencies for the Development Process

In recent years, donor agencies → multilateral institutions, foreign governments, and international organisations →  have played an increasing role in financing development projects in India.

While their involvement brings financial resources, technical expertise, and global best practices, it also raises concerns regarding community ownership, accountability, and participatory development.

Arguments Against Donor Dependence

• Reduced Community Ownership
  Development projects may be perceived as externally imposed, reducing local ownership and participation.
  Example: Protests against the Narmada Dam Project.
• Top-Down Approach
  Donor agencies may prioritise global agendas over local socio-cultural realities.
  Example: World Bank–supported interventions under ICDS that did not adequately suit local conditions.
• Bureaucratic Hurdles
  Complex donor guidelines and reporting requirements can delay implementation and burden local administration.
  Example: Reporting complications in MGNREGA due to donor involvement.
• Questionable Accountability
  Externally driven projects may bypass domestic institutional mechanisms, weakening accountability to local populations and elected governments.

Arguments Supporting Donor Involvement

• Capacity Building
  Donor agencies provide training, tools, and technical expertise.
  Example: UNDP initiatives enabling communities to manage water resources more efficiently.
• Inclusive Strategies
  Some donors actively involve local stakeholders in project design and monitoring.
  Example: ADB’s Urban Climate Fund projects in Indian cities.
• Use of Local Knowledge
  Effective donor partnerships incorporate grassroots experience.
  Example: Sweden’s support to SEWA enhanced women’s livelihoods.
• Promotion of Global Standards
  Donor aid often introduces standards related to transparency, gender equality, and environmental safeguards.

Voluntary and Charitable Institutions in Development

1. Societies

• A society is an association of seven or more persons formed to promote → Literature, Fine arts, Science, Charitable and social objectives
• Governed by the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
  The Act allows registration for any literary, scientific, charitable purpose, or other objectives specified under Section 20.

2. Trusts

• A trust is created through a will, where the settlor transfers property to be used for a specific purpose.
• Governed by the Indian Trusts Act, 1882, which primarily regulates private trusts created for specific beneficiaries.
• When the objective is to benefit the general public, the trust is classified as a public trust.

3. Religious Endowments

• Religious Endowments and Waqfs are trusts established for religious purposes, including:
  • Maintenance of religious institutions
  • Charitable activities
• Religious endowments are created by dedicating property for religious use.
• Unlike public trusts:
  • Registration is not mandatory
  • There is limited emphasis on the donor–trustee–beneficiary relationship
• Waqfs are formed through collective action of the Muslim community:
  • Ownership of land is permanently bound
  • Usufruct is dedicated to public or religious use
• The Religious Endowments Act, 1863 governed private religious endowments placed under trusteeship for predetermined beneficiaries.

Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025

Key Provisions

• Ending Arbitrary Property Claims
  Removal of Section 40 of the Waqf Act, 1995, preventing Waqf Boards from unilaterally declaring properties as Waqf.
• Inclusion of Non-Muslim Members
  Mandates inclusion of non-Muslim members in Waqf Boards to promote inclusivity and diversity.
• Women’s Rights in Family Waqf
  Ensures women receive their lawful inheritance before property is dedicated as Waqf.
• Technology Integration
  Introduction of a centralised digital portal for Waqf property management to improve transparency and record-keeping.
• Audit Reforms
  Mandatory annual audits for Waqf institutions earning over ₹1 lakh, conducted by state-appointed auditors.

Need for Reforms in Waqf Provisions

• Irrevocability of Waqf Property
  The doctrine “once a Waqf, always a Waqf” has caused ownership disputes.
  Example: Bet Dwarka Islands case.
• Lack of Judicial Oversight
  Decisions of Waqf Tribunals under the 1995 Act were not appealable, limiting judicial scrutiny.
• Misuse of Powers
  Section 40 was misused to declare private property as Waqf.
  Example: Kerala case where 600 Christian families challenged claims over ancestral land.

Role of Non-State Actors in Indian Governance – A Critical Look

After independence, India followed a state-controlled economic model, characterised by → Bureaucratic dominance, Centralised planning, License Raj

This left limited space for non-state actors.

Post-1991 LPG reforms, the role of non-state actors expanded as the state began engaging → NGOs, SHGs, Private sector players → to enhance policy implementation and service delivery.

Examples of the Growing Role of Non-State Actors

• Common Service Centres (CSCs) provide digital services in rural areas.
• Private sector participation in governance → Passport Seva Kendras (TCS), GSTN network
• PPP models in infrastructure and airport management.
• Watchdog role by NGOs and civil society → Greenpeace, Narmada Bachao Andolan
• Policy research and advocacy → PRS (Parliament Research Service) Legislative Research assists MPs in informed lawmaking.
• Service delivery and welfare:
  • NGOs fill gaps in health, education, and disaster relief.
  • Example: SEWA empowering women through livelihood support.

Concerns and Limitations

• Accountability Issues
  Some non-state actors may lack transparency or promote foreign agendas.
  Example: Crackdown on NGOs under FCRA for alleged misuse of foreign funds.
• Continued State Dominance
  Despite increased participation, Indian governance remains bureaucratically and state-driven, with non-state actors facing regulatory and political constraints.