Reforms in Bengal 19th Century UPSC

When we talk about 19th-century socio-religious reform in India, the story almost always begins with Bengal. Why Bengal? Because it was here that the impact of the West was felt first—through English education, missionary activity, and colonial administration. As a result, Bengal became the cradle of new ideas and the centre of early reform.

And at the heart of this intellectual awakening stood a remarkable man: Raja Rammohun Roy (1772–1833), rightly called the first great leader of modern India.

Raja Rammohun Roy

Life and Personality of Raja Rammohun Roy

Born in 1772 in a conservative Brahmin family in Hooghly (Bengal), Roy grew up in a deeply traditional environment.
Yet, he was unusually restless, inquisitive, and reform-minded, constantly questioning the social and religious practices around him.
He devoted his life to the social, religious, intellectual, and political regeneration of India. Rarely in history do we find one individual touching so many different aspects of nation-building at once.

For this reason, he is often seen as the “father of modern Indian renaissance.”

What He Criticised

Roy was fearless in attacking the social and religious ills of his times:

Idolatry, polytheism, empty rituals, and superstition → He saw these as distortions of true religion, perpetuated by selfish priests.
Subjugation of women → He strongly opposed sati, child marriage, polygamy, and the denial of property rights to women.
Rigid caste system → For him, caste created inequality and disunity, killing the spirit of patriotism.
Blind reliance on the past → He argued that traditions must be tested on the touchstone of reason. If reason contradicts a scripture, we must side with reason.

What He Argued For

Monotheism – belief in one God, which he said was the original teaching of the Vedas and Upanishads.
Abolition of Sati and promotion of widow remarriage.
Women’s rights – inheritance, property ownership, and education.
Modern education – not only for men but also for women.
Unity among Indians – free from caste and sectarian divisions.
Rational and scientific approach – blending modern Western learning with the spiritual depth of Indian thought.

Scholar and Linguist

Rammohun Roy was a polymath. He mastered over a dozen languages, including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English, French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.

In Varanasi, he studied Sanskrit texts and Hindu philosophy.
In Patna, he learnt Arabic and Persian literature along with the Quran.
To understand Christianity in depth, he even learnt Greek and Hebrew to read the Bible in its original form.

This vast knowledge gave him a universal vision—he could see common truths in Vedanta, the Quran, and the Bible, and he dreamt of a universal religion based on reason and morality.

Reinterpreting Hinduism

Roy wanted to reform Hinduism from within, not destroy it.
He turned to Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism) as the foundation, which rejected caste, idolatry, and meaningless rituals.
He translated the Vedas and Upanishads into Bengali, highlighting their monotheistic ideas to counter priestly exploitation.
For him, Hinduism was not about superstition but about oneness of God and rational spirituality.

He also broke taboos—for instance, orthodox Hindus considered crossing the seas a sin, yet Roy traveled abroad to engage with the wider world.

Vision for Unity and Political Upliftment

Roy understood something very profound: political freedom cannot come without social and religious reform.

He argued that India was weak because society was divided and stagnant.
By fighting caste rigidity and promoting one God, he hoped to unite Indians beyond narrow barriers.
In this sense, his work was not just about religion or society—it was about nation-building. He represented the first glimmerings of Indian national consciousness.

Champion of Women’s Rights

Roy laid the foundation of the women’s liberation movement in India.
He condemned sati, polygamy, child marriage, and argued that the absence of property rights was the root cause of women’s inferior status.
He demanded:
- Widow remarriage
- Women’s inheritance and property rights
- Female education
- Complete abolition of sati (a reform he succeeded in through his tireless efforts)

Blend of East and West

Rammohun Roy’s greatness lay in his balanced vision.

He respected India’s ancient traditions but refused to cling to their corrupted forms.
He admired Western rationalism and science but did not want India to blindly imitate the West.
His vision was a synthesis: India must modernise by selecting the best of both East and West, guided by reason.

Organisations Founded by Roy

Atmiya Sabha (1815)
- A private society in Calcutta for debating social and religious problems.
- It created the intellectual groundwork for reformist thinking.
Brahma Sabha (1828) → later evolved into the Brahmo Samaj
- Purpose: to purify Hinduism and promote monotheism.
- This became one of the most influential reformist organisations of 19th-century India.

Abolition of Sati

One of Rammohun Roy’s greatest contributions to Indian society was his relentless struggle against the inhuman practice of sati—the burning alive of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre.

His Campaign

In 1818, he began a systematic campaign against sati.
He argued that this cruel practice had no sanction in ancient scriptures. On the contrary, Hindu texts upheld the dignity of widows and allowed them the right to live.
Roy appealed to reason, humanity, and compassion—insisting that no religion could demand such brutality.

Three Fronts of His Struggle

Public Opinion
- Through writings, speeches, and debates, he prepared society to accept the abolition of sati.
- He explained that ending sati was not an interference in religion, since religion itself never commanded it.
Appeal to British Officials
- He reminded colonial rulers of their duty as civilised administrators.
- If they tolerated sati, it was a stain on their claim of bringing “enlightenment” to India.
Inquiry into Causes of Sati
- He analysed the social roots of sati:
  - Ignorance of women about their rights
  - Lack of education
  - Denial of property and inheritance rights to widows
- His solution: restore women’s property rights and expand women’s education.

Result

After years of agitation, his efforts bore fruit. In 1829, Governor-General Lord William Bentinck passed a regulation abolishing the practice of sati.
This was a landmark moment: it was not just a humanitarian reform, but a triumph of reason over blind custom.

The Orthodox Reaction: Dharma Sabha

Reform never comes without resistance. The abolition of sati provoked strong opposition from conservative sections of society.

In 1830, orthodox Hindus under Raja Radhakanta Deb formed the Dharma Sabha in Calcutta.
They claimed the government had interfered in religion, violating the promise made by King George III of respecting Indian traditions.
They filed an appeal in the Privy Council (London) against Bentinck’s ban. But in 1832, their appeal was rejected, and the abolition of sati was upheld.

The Dharma Sabha did not stop there. It campaigned against other reforms too, such as the Hindu Widow Remarriage Act (1856). But despite their efforts, reformist leaders like Roy and later Vidyasagar ensured progressive legislation prevailed.

Promotion of Modern Education

Rammohun Roy firmly believed that social progress was impossible without modern education.

His knowledge of English gave him access to Western ideas of liberty, rationalism, and scientific progress, which he wanted his fellow Indians to learn.
He was an active collaborator with educational pioneers like David Hare and Alexander Duff.

Institutions Established

1817: Helped David Hare in establishing Hindu College (which later became Presidency College).
1817: Opened an English school in Calcutta, where he introduced modern subjects like mechanics and philosophy of Voltaire—a bold move at the time.
1825: Founded the Vedanta College, which combined traditional Indian learning with Western social and physical sciences.

His Allies in the Field of Education

David Hare (1775–1842)
- A watchmaker from Scotland who came to India in 1800.
- Instead of pursuing wealth, he devoted his life to promoting modern education in Bengal.
- Founder of the Hindu College (1817) and supporter of several educational initiatives.
Alexander Duff (1806–1878)
- First overseas missionary from the Church of Scotland, arrived in Calcutta in 1830.
- Advocated for English-medium education and Western science.
- Founded the General Assembly’s Institution (1830), later known as Scottish Church College.
- Contributed to the establishment of the University of Calcutta and served as president of the Bethune Society.
- His influence was critical in shifting colonial policy from Oriental learning (Sanskrit, Persian) to Western education.

Impact

By the mid-1830s, the debate tilted decisively in favour of English education.
In 1835, the government officially resolved to promote education through English and spread European science and literature. Duff’s role was instrumental in this shift.

Public Agitations: The First Voice of Political Protest

Rammohun Roy is remembered for social reform, but we must also see him as the initiator of political agitation in modern India.

He openly condemned the oppression of Bengal zamindars, who exploited peasants under the Permanent Settlement system.
He demanded that maximum rents should be fixed so that cultivators could actually enjoy the benefits of the settlement, instead of being endlessly exploited.

His political vision was remarkably advanced for the time. He demanded:

Abolition of the East India Company’s trade monopoly
Removal of export duties on Indian goods (which had crippled Indian industries)
Indianisation of higher services (to give Indians a role in governance)
Separation of executive and judiciary (a key principle of modern governance)
Trial by jury and equality before law between Europeans and Indians

👉 Notice: these were not mere social demands. They were the earliest expressions of constitutional reform and political rights, which would later become the foundation of India’s national movement.

Industrialisation and Economic Vision

Rammohun Roy wanted India to embrace modern capitalism and industry.
At a time when British policies were de-industrialising India (famously called “de-industrialisation of Bengal”), Roy recognised that without modern industry, India could not prosper.
Thus, he was one of the first to demand not just reform of society but also economic modernisation.

Internationalism: A Global Thinker

Roy’s vision extended beyond India. He was a true internationalist, deeply interested in world affairs.

He supported struggles for liberty, democracy, and nationalism across the globe.
He condemned the oppression of Ireland under absentee English landlords, showing his empathy for all colonised peoples.
For him, the world was one family, and India’s regeneration was linked to the global march of freedom.

Contributions to Bengali Language and Literature

Roy compiled a Bengali grammar, helping to systematise and modernise the language.
Through his translations, pamphlets, and journals, he developed a new prose style—simple, elegant, and rational—which became the foundation of modern Bengali literature.

Books Written by Rammohun Roy

Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin (1803) – his first work, in Persian, arguing for rational religion and monotheism.
Gift to Monotheists (1809) – further emphasised the worship of one God.
Precepts of Jesus (1820) – praised the ethical teachings of Christ, while rejecting the miracle stories. This angered missionaries but also showed Roy’s consistent rational approach to religion.
Translations of Vedas and Upanishads into Bengali – to prove that Hinduism’s core message was monotheism, not idolatry.

Pioneer of Indian Journalism

Rammohun Roy realised that to reform society, he needed to inform society. Hence, he became one of India’s first journalists.

Sambad Kaumudi (1821, Bengali) – a newspaper to spread liberal and reformist ideas.
Mirat-ul-Akhbar (1822, Persian) – to reach those educated in Persian, still the official language of the courts.

Struggle for Press Freedom

His outspoken journalism brought him into conflict with colonial authorities.
In 1823, Governor-General John Adams passed an ordinance restricting newspapers, allowing the government to cancel licenses without explanation.
Roy strongly protested, arguing for freedom of the press.
His petition was rejected, and he was forced to shut down Mirat-ul-Akhbar.

👉 This makes him not only a social reformer but also India’s first fighter for press freedom.

Associates and Successors

Rammohun Roy inspired a generation of thinkers and entrepreneurs.

Prominent followers included Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Chandrashekhar Deb, Tarachand Chakravarti, and most importantly, Dwarkanath Tagore.
Dwarkanath Tagore (grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore) was a pioneer entrepreneur of Bengal.
- He partnered with British traders, set up ventures in banking, insurance, and shipping.
- He purchased India’s first coal mine at Raniganj, later developed into the Bengal Coal Company.
- In 1829, he founded the Union Bank of Calcutta and became the first Indian bank director.

Thus, alongside reform in ideas, there was also a push for modern enterprise and economy.

Diplomatic Mission to England

In 1830, Rammohun Roy sailed to England, representing the grievances of the Mughal Emperor Akbar II.
The emperor had given him the title “Raja” for this service.
Roy’s mission was to plead before the British Parliament and King for better pensions and privileges for the emperor.

Unfortunately, while in Bristol (England), he fell ill and died on 27 September 1833 at the age of just 61.

His Legacy and Memory

Just before his death, his portrait was painted by Rembrandt Peale, the famous American painter.
His death was mourned both in India and England—because he was not just a reformer of Bengal but a universal thinker who stood for rationalism, human dignity, and international solidarity.

Conclusion: The Modern Visionary

Raja Rammohun Roy’s greatness lies in the breadth of his vision:

Social reform (abolition of sati, women’s rights, education)
Religious reform (monotheism, rational spirituality, reinterpretation of Vedanta)
Political reform (press freedom, Indianisation of services, judicial equality)
Economic reform (support for modern industry)
Internationalism (solidarity with oppressed people worldwide)

He was not a mere reformer; he was a nation-builder and global thinker. His ideas sowed the first seeds of modern Indian consciousness, and later reformers—Debendranath Tagore, Keshub Chandra Sen, Vidyasagar, Dayananda Saraswati, Vivekananda—walked the path he opened.

The Brahmo Samaj: Birth of an Organisation (1828)

On 20 August 1828, Raja Rammohun Roy founded the Brahma Sabha, which later became the Brahmo Samaj.
Its objective was clear: purify Hinduism and establish it on two foundations:
1. Reason (rationality must guide faith and practice)
2. The Vedas and Upanishads (as sources of higher spiritual truths)
The Brahmo Samaj also absorbed ethical elements from other religions. In doing so, it became a platform for humanism, monotheism, and social regeneration.
It rejected two extremes:

Blind adherence to corrupt Hindu customs, and
The idea that Vedas were “infallible.” Instead, it insisted that reason alone is the ultimate test of any religious principle.

👉 After Roy’s death (1833), the movement suffered a temporary setback. But soon, Debendranath Tagore revived it and gave it stability, while Keshub Chandra Sen later broadened its scope and influence.

Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905): The Philosopher-Organizer

Son of Dwarkanath Tagore and father of Rabindranath Tagore.
In 1839, he founded the Tattvabodhini Sabha (Society for Truth-Seekers). Its journal, the Tattvabodhini Patrika, propagated Rammohun Roy’s rational ideas and promoted a systematic study of India’s past in Bengali.
The Sabha brought together a galaxy of reformers:
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
- Akshay Kumar Dutt
- Many followers of Rammohun and Derozio
In 1843, Debendranath formally joined and reorganised the Brahmo Samaj, giving it structure and new vitality.
His approach was spiritual and cautious. He opposed idolatry, caste rigidity, and superstitions, but he was reluctant to push for aggressive social reforms for fear of alienating wider Hindu society.

Keshub Chandra Sen (1838–1884): The Radical Reformer

Keshub Chandra Sen joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857 and quickly rose to prominence. In 1858, Debendranath appointed him Acharya (leader).
Under his leadership, the Brahmo Samaj became dynamic and socially active.

Reforms Advocated by Keshub Sen

Complete rejection of caste distinctions.
Condemnation of untouchability, child marriage, and polygamy.
Promotion of widow remarriage, inter-caste marriage, and female education.

Conflict with Debendranath

Debendranath was cautious and conservative, wanting gradual change.
Keshub Sen was radical, insisting on full abolition of caste and rapid social reform.
This ideological clash split the movement:
- Debendranath’s wing became the Adi Brahmo Samaj (Original Brahmo Samaj).
- Keshub Sen’s wing became the Bharatvarshiya Brahmo Samaj (The Brahmo Samaj of India, 1868).

Achievements of Keshub Chandra Sen

Spread of Brahmo Ideas Nationwide
- Through his lecture tours in Bombay, Madras, and elsewhere, Sen carried the reformist message far beyond Bengal.
Brahmo Marriages
- Keshub Sen petitioned the government for a law to legitimise Brahmo marriages.
- This led to the Native Marriage Act of 1872 (later Special Marriage Act).
  - Allowed inter-caste marriages.
  - Permitted remarriage of widows.
  - Dispensed with orthodox rituals.
  - Fixed the minimum marriage age at 14 for girls and 18 for boys.

⚠️ Limitation: The Act contained a self-excommunication clause—couples marrying under this law had to declare they did not belong to any recognised religion (Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, or Parsi). This made it less attractive to the general population.

Indian Reform Association (1870)
- Founded by Keshub Sen as the secular arm of the Brahmo Samaj.
- It included both Brahmos and non-Brahmos.
- Aimed to implement social reforms inspired by Sen’s visit to Britain.
Naba Bidhan (New Dispensation, 1881)
- Keshub tried to blend Hindu philosophy with Christian theology, creating a new universal religion.
- It reflected his spiritual eclecticism but also alienated many followers.

The Crisis of Keshub Sen’s Leadership

In 1878, a controversy broke out when Keshub arranged the marriage of his underage daughter to the Raja of Cooch Behar.
Not only were both bride and groom minors, but the wedding was conducted with Brahmin priests and orthodox Hindu rituals—contradicting the very principles of Brahmo Samaj.
His radical followers were outraged and broke away to form the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (1878), led by Shibchandra Deb, Umesh Chandra Datta, and Ananda Mohan Bose.

Significance of the Brahmo Movement

The Brahmo Samaj became one of the most influential reformist platforms of 19th-century India.
It brought together rationality, monotheism, humanism, and social reform.
It attacked caste, superstition, and the oppression of women.
It created a new middle-class intelligentsia that would later play a leading role in the nationalist movement.

✅ In summary, the Brahmo Samaj carried forward the vision of Rammohun Roy, but with different emphases:

Debendranath Tagore gave it organisation, spiritual depth, and stability.
Keshub Chandra Sen gave it dynamism, social radicalism, and national reach.
Later divisions (Adi Brahmo, Bharatvarshiya Brahmo, Sadharan Brahmo) reflected the tensions between spirituality, social reform, and practical compromises.

The Young Bengal Movement (1820s–30s)

Origin and Leader

Founded by Henry Vivian Derozio (1809–1831), an Anglo-Indian poet, rationalist, and teacher at Calcutta’s Hindu College.
Derozio, barely 17 when appointed a teacher in 1826, inspired his students to question authority, love liberty, and worship truth.
His followers, known as the Derozians or Young Bengal, carried forward Rammohun Roy’s spirit of intellectual inquiry — but with more radical and revolutionary zeal.

Ideas and Activities

Advocated women’s rights and demanded education for women.
Criticised decadent customs, rituals, and blind traditions.
Carried out public agitation on major political questions:
- Demanded freedom of the press.
- Advocated trial by jury and equality before law.
- Asked for better treatment of Indian labour in British colonies.
- Supported protection of ryots from zamindari oppression.
- Sought employment of Indians in higher government services.
Methods: pamphlets, journals, public debates, associations.

Limitations

Despite their enthusiasm, the movement could not succeed:

Social conditions were not ripe — Indian society was not yet ready for such advanced radicalism.
Their radicalism remained bookish, detached from the ground realities.
They neglected the peasantry and masses, focusing instead on elite urban circles.

Thus, while their impact was short-lived, they represent the first radical voice of modern India.

Derozio’s Personal Legacy

Often called the first nationalist poet of modern India.
His famous poem “To India – My Native Land” mourned India’s fall from ancient glory to colonial subjugation.
Removed from Hindu College in 1831 for his radicalism, he died soon after of cholera — at just 22 years of age.
👉 Though brief, his life lit a spark of intellectual rebellion that inspired later generations.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891): The Great Humanist

If Derozio symbolised radical ideas, Vidyasagar represented practical reform rooted in compassion and Indian tradition.

Personality and Vision

A scholar, reformer, and humanist, known for his deep sympathy for the poor, oppressed, and marginalised.
Blended the best of Indian tradition with Western rationalism.

Major Campaigns

Against Polygamy and Child Marriage
- Condemned these practices as degrading to women.
For Widow Remarriage
- Used ancient Hindu texts to show scriptural support for widow remarriage.
- Waged a long struggle that culminated in the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (1856), drafted by Lord Dalhousie and passed under Lord Canning.
- Under his inspiration, the first lawful widow remarriage among upper castes was celebrated in Calcutta on 7 December 1856.
- Resistance was strong: conservative leaders like Radhakanta Deb and the Dharma Sabha opposed the law, gathering four times more petition signatures than Vidyasagar.
- Result: though the law was passed, social acceptance remained minimal, and women’s condition changed little.
Women’s Education
- As Secretary of the Bethune School (1850), he promoted higher education for women.
- As Government Inspector of Schools, he helped establish 35 girls’ schools, often running them at his own expense.
Reforms at Sanskrit College (1851)
- As Principal, he opened admissions to non-Brahmins, breaking caste monopoly in Sanskrit learning.
- Introduced Western thought into the curriculum.
- Freed Sanskrit studies from narrow orthodoxy and self-imposed isolation.

Contributions to Language and Literature

Author of Barnaparichay, a Bengali primer that is still used today.
Developed a modern prose style in Bengali, making literature clear, rational, and accessible.

Comparison: Derozio and Vidyasagar

Derozio: Radical, intellectual, Western-influenced, focused on liberty, equality, and rationalism. But his movement remained elite and short-lived.
Vidyasagar: Humanist, practical reformer, used Indian tradition (shastras) to defend progressive change, worked directly for women’s upliftment and education. His reforms, though resisted, left a lasting social impact.

✅ In summary, the Young Bengal Movement ignited radical questioning of authority and tradition, while Vidyasagar’s efforts gave reform a practical, humane, and scripturally grounded form. Together, they represent the two faces of 19th-century Bengal’s awakening: intellectual rebellion and compassionate social reform.

Excellent — now we are stepping into the spiritual–social synthesis of the late 19th century, represented by Ramakrishna Paramahansa and his disciple Swami Vivekananda, who transformed the reform movement into a broader vision of religion, society, and nation. This part is very important because it links spirituality with social service and nationalism. Let’s understand this:

Ramakrishna Mission

Ramakrishna Paramahansa (1834–1886): The Mystic Saint

Ramakrishna was a Hindu mystic, deeply devoted to Goddess Kali, yet his spiritual journey went beyond Hinduism.
He practiced and experienced the truths of multiple religions — Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity.
His central message was universalism in religion:
- All religions are simply different paths leading to the same goal.
- The essence of religion lies not in rituals or dogmas, but in the direct experience of God.
- Service of man is service of God.

👉 In an age of rising communal tension and missionary criticism of Hinduism, Ramakrishna’s philosophy was a soothing, integrative vision of religious harmony.

Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902): The Dynamic Disciple

Born Narendranath Datta, he became the foremost disciple of Ramakrishna and carried his teacher’s message to the world.
Unlike his guru, who was mystical and inward-looking, Vivekananda was practical, outspoken, and reformist.

His Teachings and Ideas

Against Social Evils
- Condemned caste system, ritualism, and superstition.
- Urged people to embrace liberty, equality, and rational thinking.
Religious Universalism with Indian Pride
- Declared the oneness of all religions, rejecting narrowness and sectarianism.
- Yet, he firmly believed in the superior philosophical depth of Vedanta, which he called rational and universal.
National Regeneration
- Criticised Indians for becoming stagnant and cut off from the world.
- Called for awakening of self-confidence, strength, and social responsibility.
- His famous words, “Arise, awake, and stop not till the goal is reached,” became the mantra of national revival.
Knowledge and Action Together
- Insisted that knowledge without action is meaningless.
- True spirituality must inspire service to humanity.
World Recognition
- At the World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago (September 1893), his speech on Hinduism electrified the audience.
- He presented Hinduism as the “mother of all religions” and won international admiration.

Ramakrishna Mission (1897)

In 1897, Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission to put his master’s ideals into practice.
Motto: “Atmano mokshartham jagat hitaya cha” — For one’s own salvation and for the welfare of the world.

Objectives

Spread the teachings of Ramakrishna and Vedanta.
Work for the social upliftment of the people.

Activities

Opened schools, hospitals, orphanages, and libraries.
Took part in relief work during famines, floods, and disasters.
Emphasised social service and humanitarian work, not just personal salvation.

Organisation

In 1898, Vivekananda purchased land at Belur (near Calcutta) and established Ramakrishna Math, a monastic order.
Later, the Math (spiritual centre) and the Mission (social service organisation) were legally separated but function as twin organisations.

Significance

The Ramakrishna–Vivekananda tradition gave Hindu reform a new dimension: not just cleansing society of evils, but also infusing spiritual confidence and national pride.
It combined spirituality with service, showing that religion is not about withdrawal but about active engagement with the world.
This movement deeply inspired later leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Aurobindo Ghose.

✅ In short, Ramakrishna preached religious harmony, and Vivekananda translated it into a call for national awakening and social service through the Ramakrishna Mission. Together, they bridged the gap between spiritualism and nationalism, preparing the ground for India’s 20th-century struggle for freedom.