The Khalji Dynasty

📍 From Turkish Aristocracy to Indo-Afghan Assertion in the Delhi Sultanate

🧭 Historical Context:

• After the death of Balban in 1286 CE, the Delhi Sultanate once again plunged into political instability.
• Prince Mahmud, Balban’s designated heir, had died battling the Mongols.
• Bughra Khan, Balban’s second son, refused the Delhi throne and ruled over Bengal and Bihar.
• Consequently, the nobles installed Balban’s grandson, Qaikabad, as Sultan, whose weak rule paved the way for the Khalji Revolution in 1290.

⚔️ Khalji Revolution and End of Turkish Monopoly:

• Jalaluddin Khalji, a 70-year-old seasoned Turko-Afghan noble and frontier commander against the Mongols, overthrew Qaikabad.
• Significance:
  • This marked the end of the Turkish monopoly over high offices in the Sultanate.
  • The Khaljis, although of Turkish-Afghan mixed descent, were seen as non-Turks by the established Turkish elite.
  • Their rise was supported by a growing non-Turkish and Indian Muslim nobility who had long felt excluded under Balban’s Turk-centric rule.

🧱 Nature of the Khalji Dynasty:

• The Khaljis represented a broad-based power shift within the ruling elite of the Delhi Sultanate:
  • Turks were not entirely excluded, but their dominance was diluted.
  • Indian Muslims and other non-Turkish groups began to receive higher appointments.
  • Central Asia’s Turkic aristocracy viewed the Khaljis as social upstarts.

👑 Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–1296 CE): The Moderate Monarch

🧠 Political Philosophy:

• First Sultan to openly argue that a ruler in India must govern with the support of the majority — i.e., Hindus.
• Opposed to the idea of a rigidly Islamic state in a Hindu-majority region.

⚖️ Governance Style:

• Marked shift from Balban’s harsh centralisation:
  • Promoted reconciliation, leniency, and mercy.
  • Example: Forgave Malik Chhajju (Balban’s nephew) after a rebellion.

⚔️ Weaknesses:

• His kindness was seen as weakness.
  • Example: When thugs looted villages, he merely warned them and let them go.
  • His moderate tone clashed with the need for stronger military leadership amid Mongol threats and internal rebellions.

🩸 Transition of Power: The Rise of Alauddin Khalji

• In 1292 CE, Malik Chhajju rebelled again and was replaced by Alauddin Khalji (Jalaluddin’s nephew and son-in-law) as governor of Kara.
• In 1296, Alauddin raided Devagiri (Yadava capital, Maharashtra), returning with immense wealth.
• At Kara, during a ceremonial reception, Alauddin murdered Jalaluddin, seized power, and declared himself Sultan of Delhi.

👑 Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316 CE): The Architect of Imperial Expansion

We now enter a very crucial phase in the history of the Delhi Sultanate — the reign of Alauddin Khalji, one of the most ambitious and authoritarian rulers among the Khaljis. His rule marked a decisive turning point: both in military assertiveness and administrative innovations.

🩸 Rise to Power: Through Treachery and Gold

In 1296 CE, Alauddin Khalji usurped the throne by murdering his own uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin Khalji. This regicide was not only a political betrayal but a deliberate power grab — carried out with calculated deception.

🟡 After the murder, he strategically bribed the nobles and soldiers with generous amounts of gold, ensuring their allegiance.

Those who still resisted were severely punished — a classic display of stick and carrot. But soon after securing power, he purged even the nobles who had defected to him earlier — either killing them or dismissing them, and confiscating their properties. This move, though ruthless, was calculated to eliminate any potential threat.

🎨 Cultural Patronage and Architecture

Despite his authoritarian rule, Alauddin Khalji was also a patron of culture:

• He supported celebrated poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.
• He built the iconic Alai Darwaza, the southern gateway of the Qutub Minar complex — a fine example of Indo-Islamic architecture.
• He established a new capital at Siri, near modern-day Delhi.

🛡️ Military Campaigns Against the Mongols: Defending the North-West

Alauddin’s reign was frequently challenged by Mongol invasions — six in total.

• The first two invasions were repelled successfully.
• During the third invasion, Mongol commander Khwaja advanced close to Delhi, but failed to breach its defences.
• The next three Mongol attacks were dealt with extreme retaliation, leading to the mass killing of thousands of Mongols.

To secure the empire from future invasions, Alauddin fortified the north-western frontier and appointed Ghazi Malik as the Warden of the Marches, a military post responsible for frontier defence.

🌏 Territorial Expansion Under Alauddin Khalji

Under Alauddin, the Delhi Sultanate began a deliberate phase of expansion, particularly towards the south — a project that began under him and reached its zenith under Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

📍 Campaign in Gujarat (1299–1300)

• Generals Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan were sent to Gujarat.
• The local king fled with his daughter; the queen was captured and sent to Delhi.
• Malik Kafur, a notable slave from Gujarat, was also captured and brought to Delhi. He later became Alauddin’s trusted general and Malik Naib (Deputy Military Commander).
• The campaign brought immense booty, with temples and cities plundered — including the famous Somnath temple, which had earlier been rebuilt in the 12th century.

📍 Rajasthan Campaigns

Ranthambhor (1301)

• Initially, Hamirdeva of Ranthambhor resisted.
• Alauddin led the siege personally; after three months, Ranthambhor fell.
• The Jauhar ceremony was performed — where Rajput women immolated themselves to avoid enslavement, while men donned saffron robes and chose to fight to death.

Chittor (1303)

• Raja Ratan Singh defended Chittor valiantly, but in 1303, the fort fell after a prolonged siege.
• Another Jauhar followed — Rani Padmini and other Rajput women committed self-immolation.

⚠️ The legend of Padmini, often popularised in later folklore, suggests Alauddin attacked Chittor because of his desire for her beauty. But this narrative is not considered historically accurate, as the earliest record of this tale appears more than a century later.

• Other Rajput states submitted to Alauddin, but he did not impose direct rule. Instead, they retained autonomy but paid regular tribute and obeyed the sultan’s orders — a classic example of suzerainty rather than annexation.

📍 Deccan and South India Campaigns

Alauddin Khalji was the first Delhi Sultan to launch large-scale invasions into the Deccan and deep South, mainly through his trusted general Malik Kafur.

Devagiri (1307)

• Rai Ramachandra, ruler of Devagiri (present-day Maharashtra), was defeated and taken to Delhi.
• However, he was released and reinstated as a vassal, granted wealth, a golden canopy (a symbol of sovereignty), and even a district in Gujarat.
• His daughter was married into Alauddin’s family.

🧩 This alliance with Ramachandra smoothed the path for Alauddin’s future Deccan expeditions.

Warangal Campaign (1309–1310)

• Malik Kafur marched against Prataparudradeva, the ruler of Kakatiya dynasty at Warangal.
• Prataparudra surrendered, paid enormous tribute, and was allowed to continue ruling as a vassal.

Hoysala Campaign (1310–1311)

• The next target was Dwarasamudra, capital of the Hoysala kingdom.
• The king, Veera Ballala III, surrendered and agreed to pay annual tribute to Delhi.

Pandya Campaign (1311)

• The final southern expedition was towards Madurai, capital of the Pandya kingdom.
• Despite heavy rainfall and floods, Malik Kafur pushed through.
• Cities like Chidambaram, Srirangam, and Madurai were plundered.
• However, unlike the earlier campaigns, the Tamil army was not decisively defeated.
• Kafur returned to Delhi in 1311, loaded with immense wealth.

🧱 Reforms and Experiments of Alauddin Khalji: Governance Through Iron Will

Alauddin Khalji was not just a conqueror; he was a political realist who understood that an empire can only survive when internal rebellion is pre-empted and economic stability is ensured. To achieve this, he implemented a series of bold and systematic reforms that no previous Delhi Sultan had dared to experiment with.

Regulations to Control the Nobles: A Strategy Against Conspiracy

Alauddin had a deep suspicion of the nobility. He believed that four things contributed to repeated rebellions in the Sultanate:

• Wealth and luxury among nobles
• Intermarriages within aristocratic families
• Lack of efficient intelligence system
• Consumption of liquor, which led to socializing and plotting

To tackle this, he issued four major ordinances:

1. Confiscation of Property

All wealth and estates of the nobles were confiscated. This reduced their financial independence and capacity to rebel.

2. Ban on Social Gatherings and Marriages

Nobles were not allowed to hold festivities or even form marriage alliances without the Sultan’s permission.

3. Prohibition of Liquor and Drugs

Sale and consumption of liquor and intoxicants were banned to prevent clandestine meetings and conspiracies.

4. Strengthening of Spy Network

A well-structured intelligence network was put in place. All movements and secret activities of the nobility were reported directly to the Sultan.

🧠 The result? His entire reign witnessed no major rebellion — a rare feat in medieval politics.

🛒 Market Control Policy: Alauddin as an Economic Administrator

This is one of the most remarkable aspects of Alauddin’s governance. Even contemporary chroniclers saw his market regulations as “wonders of the world”.

🎯 Objective: Control inflation to maintain a large army on low salaries.

🛍️ Regulated Marketplaces in Delhi

He set up three separate markets in Delhi:

1. For food grains
2. For luxury textiles
3. For horses, cattle, and slaves

Each market was headed by a special officer called the Shahna-i-Mandi. Their duty was to:

• Maintain a register of merchants
• Fix prices
• Monitor trade practices strictly

🧾 Agrarian Measures to Support Market Control

To keep prices stable, even during famines, he took revolutionary agrarian steps:

1. Direct Cash Revenue System in the Doab

• The Doab region (between Ganga and Yamuna) was taken back from the Iqtadars.
• Farmers here had to pay revenue directly to the state in cash.

2. Increased State Demand

• The land revenue was raised to 50% of the agricultural produce.

This forced peasants to sell their produce quickly and cheaply to banjaras (grain merchants), who were registered and regulated.

3. Anti-Hoarding Measures

• Merchants (banjaras and their agents) were held collectively responsible if prices rose artificially.
• The state built granaries to store food and release grain during famines.

4. Secret Agents (Munhiyans)

• These agents continuously monitored the market and reported any violations directly to the Sultan.

🎓 Alauddin’s goal wasn’t to help the poor, but to ensure economic stability for military strength — a classic case of state-led price control for military financing.

⚔️ Military and Revenue Reforms: The Backbone of His Power

🪖 Standing Army and Salaries

Alauddin maintained a large, permanent standing army, which was:

• Paid in cash, not in land grants
• Regularly inspected to ensure efficiency

He introduced:

• Dagh System – branding of horses to prevent cheating by soldiers
• Huliya System – descriptive roll of soldiers for record-keeping

🌾 Land Revenue Administration

He was the first Sultan to introduce land measurement as a basis for revenue.

📌 This enabled better planning of state income and allowed the Sultan to pay salaries from cash revenue.

Since military salaries were deliberately low, the market control system was necessary to ensure that these low wages could still buy adequate goods.

⚰️ Political Turmoil After Alauddin’s Death (1316 CE)

After Alauddin’s death, the Delhi Sultanate plunged into chaos:

🔻 Malik Kafur’s Short Rule

• Made Shihabuddin, Alauddin’s minor son, the nominal Sultan
• Blinded or imprisoned other princes
• Assumed full control as regent
• But was killed by palace guards soon after

🔁 Mubarak Khan’s Rise

• Became regent, then dethroned Shihabuddin and declared himself Sultan
• Annexed Devagiri and conducted campaigns in Warangal

🔚 Khusrau Khan and the End of Khalji Rule

• Khusrau Khan overthrew Mubarak Khan and ruled for only 75 days
• In 1320 CE, Ghazi Malik, governor of Dipalpur, defeated Khusrau Khan
• Founded the Tughlaq dynasty, taking the title Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

🎶 Amir Khusrau (1253–1325 CE): The Voice of the Sultanate

🎤 Scholar, Poet, Musician, and Sufi

• Born in 1253, he was a multi-talented genius — a Sufi musician, poet, scholar, and courtier.
• Served under five Sultans, including Alauddin Khalji and Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
• Known for:
  • Developing Hindavi (a precursor to Hindi and Urdu)
  • Shaping Indian classical music
  • Invention of instruments like the sitar (as per tradition, though debated)
  • Writing famous verses in Persian and Hindavi

🧘‍♂️ Spiritual Affiliation

• A devoted disciple of Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya, the Chishti Sufi saint
• Died in 1325 CE, leaving behind a vast legacy of syncretic cultural fusion

📝 His works serve as valuable sources for reconstructing medieval Indian society, culture, and polity.