Early Vedic Period
Who Were the Earliest Aryans in India?
The Rig Vedic people, who composed the Rig Veda around 1500 BCE, represent the earliest wave of Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent. They were nomadic-pastoral Indo-Aryans, deeply religious, and organized into tribal societies.
Their initial settlements were located in the Saptasindhu region, meaning “land of seven rivers”, which includes:
- Eastern Afghanistan
- Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Swat Valley/NWFP)
- Punjab (now in Pakistan)
- Fringes of Western Uttar Pradesh
🟠 The early Aryan society as seen in the Rig Veda was tribal, nature-worshipping, war-ready, and largely rural. They had not yet moved east into the fertile plains of the Ganga-Yamuna.
What Is Saptasindhu?
The term Saptasindhu appears frequently in the Rig Veda.
The Seven Rivers Include:
| Vedic Name | Modern Equivalent |
| Sindhu | Indus |
| Vitasta | Jhelum |
| Asikni / Asakini | Chenab |
| Parushni | Ravi |
| Vipash / Vipasa | Beas |
| Shutudri | Sutlej |
| Saraswati | Ghaggar-Hakra |
| (Bonus) Drishadvati | Chautang |
🔍 Saraswati: This river is of particular interest. While some link it to the mythical river in Rig Veda, others equate it with the Ghaggar-Hakra, a now seasonal river in Haryana and Rajasthan.
Interestingly, the Avesta (ancient Iranian text) also mentions Haraxvati—believed to be the Helmand River in Afghanistan, suggesting shared cultural memory between Indo-Iranians.
Who Were the Aryas, Dasas, and Dasyus?
The Rig Vedic Aryans called themselves Ārya, meaning noble or cultured. But they also mention two other groups:
a. Dasas
- Mentioned both in Rig Veda and Avesta.
- Possibly an Indo-Aryan branch or an early kindred tribe.
- Initially not seen as enemies—there are soft references.
- Over time, the term “Dasa” came to mean slave, both in masculine (dasa) and feminine (dasi) forms.
b. Dasyus
- Likely the indigenous pre-Aryan inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent.
- Referred to negatively in Rig Veda.
- Described as:
- Not worshipping Aryan gods
- Possibly idol or phallus worshippers
- Not domesticating cattle (especially not for milk)
- Aryans considered them hostile, and the term dasyuhatya (slaughter of dasyus) is used repeatedly.
- A heroic Aryan chief, Trasadasyu, earned fame for defeating the dasyus.
🧠 Conclusion: The Aryans distinguished themselves as a cultural and linguistic group, often hostile to those who did not conform to their gods, rituals, or lifestyle.
Tribal Conflicts in the Early Vedic Period
The Aryans were a warrior people, and their early period saw two broad types of conflicts:
A. Conflict with Non-Aryans (Dasas and Dasyus)
- Indra, the most powerful deity in the Rig Veda, is called Purandara — destroyer of forts.
- While Harappans had fortified cities, by 1500 BCE they had already declined, so this does not indicate Aryan-Harappan wars.
- Likely, these forts were symbolic or belonged to borderland tribes.
- Aryans succeeded due to:
- Horse-driven chariots
- Bronze weapons
- Armor (Varman)
🟤 Significance: The introduction of the horse-chariot was a major military innovation by Aryans in India and West Asia.
B. Conflict Among Aryan Tribes: The Battle of Ten Kings
This is one of the most famous events in the Rig Veda.
Details:
- Took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern-day Ravi).
- The conflict was between:
- The Bharatas and Tritsu clans (ruling group, supported by priest Vasishtha)
- Versus a coalition of ten tribes, including:
- Five Aryan tribes: Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu
- Five non-Aryan tribes: Alina, Pakhta, Bhalanas, Sivas, Vishanin
Outcome:
- King Sudas of the Bharata tribe emerged victorious.
- The Purus, who had opposed the Bharatas, later joined forces with them.
- This union led to the formation of a new dominant tribe — the Kurus.
🟢 Legacy:
- The Kurus later allied with the Panchalas, becoming a dominant political force in the Later Vedic Period.
- The name Bharatavarsha, mentioned in Rig Veda, originates from the Bharata tribe—a foundational identity for the Indian subcontinent.
So, we can say:
The Early Vedic Period marks the arrival, settlement, and consolidation of Aryan tribes in northwestern India.
- They battled nature, hostile tribes, and even amongst themselves.
- Their society was tribal, mobile, and oral, centered on rituals, poetry, and warfare.
- This was also the time when religious imagination began to take shape — through hymns that eventually became the core of Hindu philosophy.
Material Life and Society
After understanding the geographical setting and political conflicts of the Early Vedic age, we now turn to the everyday life of the Rig Vedic people — their economy, livelihood, social structure, and settlement patterns.
Economy of the Rig Vedic Aryans
A. Cattle Rearing: Backbone of the Early Economy
The Early Vedic society was predominantly pastoral. Agriculture existed but remained secondary.
- Cow = Wealth:
The wealth of a person was measured in terms of cattle. The cow was not just an animal — it was currency, status, and sacred symbol.
🐄 Cultural Expressions Reflecting Cattle Importance:
| Term | Meaning |
| Gavishthi | Literally “search for cows” → Term for war |
| Gomat | A wealthy man (one who owns many cows) |
| Duhitri | Daughter (literally, “the one who milks the cow”) |
| Goghna | Guest (fed on beef—cow was slaughtered in honor) |
🔸 While cows were venerated, beef was not taboo in the early Vedic period. It was consumed during rituals, for honored guests, and on special occasions.
B. Horse: The Aryan’s Strategic Asset
- Asva (horse) appears 215 times in the Rig Veda — more than cow (176) or bull (170).
- Used in warfare, mobility, and herding cattle across large pastures.
- Horse-chariots, along with bronze weapons and armor (varman), gave Aryans a major edge.
🐎 Historical Insight:
Horses were not native to India. They were domesticated in Central Asia and likely brought to India by the Indo-Aryans after 1500 BCE.
C. Agriculture: Subsistence-Level, Not Surplus
- Used wooden ploughshares.
- Practiced shifting cultivation and basic farming.
- Worshipped Agni (fire), which played a key role in clearing forests.
So, while farming existed, pastoralism dominated both economically and culturally.
D. Professions and Crafts
The Rig Vedic people were not urban artisans, but they had a wide range of skilled occupations, including:
- Carpentry
- Weaving
- Chariot-making
- Leatherwork
- Pottery
- Metalwork (Copper and Bronze)
→ The word “Ayas” in Rig Veda refers to copper/bronze, not iron (which appears only in the Later Vedic period).
🔧 They also introduced the spoked wheel, originally from the Caucasus region (around 2300 BCE).
E. Trade and Exchange
- Trade was minimal, and mostly local.
- Goods were exchanged through barter.
- Gold (nishka) is mentioned, but coins are absent in this period.
- No knowledge of maritime trade:
- The term “Samudra” appears in Rig Veda, but it referred more to inland water bodies or river confluences, not the sea.
🧾 Important UPSC Point:
Metal coins began appearing only around 6th century BCE, during the Mahajanapada period.
F. Land: Not Yet Sacred Property
- Aryans used land for grazing, agriculture, or settlement, but:
- Land was not a private commodity.
- No concept of land ownership or land tax yet.
- Society was nomadic or semi-nomadic, so land was communal or temporary.
2. Settlement Pattern: Not Urban, Not Primitive
- The Aryans lived in fortified mud settlements, not cities.
- Words like “sahasra” (thousand) in Rig Veda are often symbolic or exaggerated.
- Settlements were small, scattered, and tribal.
3. Social Structure: Kinship and Clans
The Early Vedic society was kinship-based and patriarchal.
A. Family (Kula):
- The basic social unit.
- Joint family system was common, with 3 or more generations living together.
- Head of the family was called Kulapa.
B. Grama (Clan Village):
- A cluster of families formed a Grama.
- Led by a Gramani.
- Conflicts between Gramas were known as Samgrama — the root of the word Sangram (battle).
C. Vish (Extended Clan Group):
- A group of Gramas formed a Vish.
- Led by a Vishpati.
- The later term Vaishya (varna) evolved from Vish.
D. Jana (Tribe):
- The highest political and social unit.
- A collective of multiple Vish or clans.
- Led by a Rajan (chief/king) in consultation with sabha and samiti (early tribal assemblies).
👥 In this society, status came from lineage, not land or wealth.
A person was known not by their profession or place, but by which tribe or clan they belonged to — like Sudas of the Bharata tribe.
Political Organisation
Unlike later kingdoms, Early Vedic society had no concept of a state, fixed territory, or bureaucracy. It was a tribal society, and political organisation reflected their nomadic and pastoral lifestyle.
Jana – The Tribal Polity
- The highest political unit was not the state or territory, but the Jana, meaning tribe.
- People’s primary identity and loyalty was not toward land, but toward their tribal kinship.
📘 The word “Jana” appears 275 times in the Rig Veda, but “Janapada” (meaning land or territory) is not used even once.
| Concept | Status in Early Vedic Period |
| Jana | Most important political identity |
| Janapada | Not yet formed or conceptualized |
Rajan – The Tribal Chief
- The head of the Jana was the Rajan (not yet a king in the later monarchical sense).
- His position was not absolute and not initially hereditary.
- Rajan was elected by tribal assemblies, particularly Samiti.
- He was expected to be:
- A brave warrior
- A protector of cattle
- A religious leader performing rituals on behalf of the tribe
🛡️ The Rajan was not a ruler of land but a leader of people.
Popular Assemblies: Tribal Democracy in Action
Early Vedic society had a unique feature: decision-making by tribal assemblies, not by decree.
| Assembly Name | Nature | Key Roles |
| Sabha | Elite council | Judicial, advisory, and religious discussions |
| Samiti | Popular assembly | Selected the Rajan; had one member per household |
| Vidatha | Ritual and economic decisions; open to women | |
| Gana | Clan-based group; may have military functions |
🟣 Women could participate in Sabha and Vidatha, suggesting some early gender inclusivity.
Administrative Structure: Simple and Clan-Based
There was no centralized civil administration. Why?
Because the Aryans were:
- Migratory
- Not yet urbanized
- Still expanding and exploring
Still, some key officials assisted the Rajan:
| Officer | Function |
| Purohita | Chief priest, astrologer, spiritual adviser (most influential) |
| Senani | Military commander; second in importance |
| Vrajapati | Led clans (kulapas, gramanis) in war; oversaw pasture grounds |
📜 Vasishtha and Vishvamitra were two famous Rigvedic priests:
- Vasishtha: Conservative, traditionalist
- Vishvamitra: Liberal, reformist; credited with composing the Gayatri Mantra
Taxation: Voluntary and Minimal
- There was no systematic taxation, for two reasons:
- Economy was pastoral, not surplus-producing
- Society was tribal, with shared responsibilities
Key Term:
| Term | Meaning |
| Bali | Voluntary offering made by tribespeople to the Rajan |
There was no revenue officer, and tribute collection was irregular.
Justice and Law Enforcement: Clan-Based, Not State-Controlled
- The Rig Veda does not mention any judiciary or judge.
- Justice was likely delivered through customs, assemblies, or clan elders.
- Society wasn’t ideal—even Rig Veda refers to cow thefts, so crime existed.
Military: No Standing Army
There was no professional army in this period.
- Instead, the Rajan mobilized the militia during war, composed of tribal and clan units.
Tribal Military Units:
| Unit Name | Function |
| Vrata | Small armed groups |
| Gana | War-band or clan troops |
| Grama | Settlement-based fighters |
| Sardha | Coalition of various clan groups |
⚔️ This shows that warfare was community-driven, not state-led.
Social Life and Religion
The Rig Vedic society was still tribal and nomadic, but it laid the foundational structure for what would become Indian civilisation in later centuries. This phase marks the transition from tribal egalitarianism to early social hierarchy.
Structure of Society
The Early Vedic society was:
| Feature | Description |
| Patriarchal | Authority vested in male members of the family |
| Patrilineal | Descent traced through the father’s line |
| Patrilocal | After marriage, the wife moved to husband’s home |
- Monogamy was the norm.
- Polygamy existed, especially among chiefs and nobles.
Occupational Groups and the Idea of Varna
The word ‘Varna’ originally meant colour, not caste. It was used in the Rig Veda to differentiate between Aryans (Arya Varna) and non-Aryans (Dasa Varna) — the former considered fairer, the latter darker.
However, the beginning of social differentiation is visible:
| Varna | Function | Mention in Rig Veda |
| Brahmin | Ritual specialists (priests) | Yes |
| Kshatriya | Warriors, tribal chiefs | Yes |
| Vaishya | Farmers, merchants | No (Absent) |
| Shudra | Labour class | No (Mentioned only later) |
📌 The full four-fold varna system appears only in the later 10th Mandala of the Rig Veda (Purusha Sukta), which is considered a later addition—closer to the Later Vedic Period.
Emergence of Social Inequality
While tribal society was initially more egalitarian, differences emerged due to:
- Unequal distribution of war booty
- Rise of priests and warriors who gained more wealth and prestige
This gradually led to a three-tiered society:
- Brahmins – Ritual authority
- Kshatriyas – Political/military power
- Vish (Jana) – Common people
🧠 The Shudras, as a separate class, were added later when hereditary inequality solidified.
Slavery in the Rig Vedic Period
Yes, slavery existed, but it was limited:
- Slaves were usually prisoners of war or debt bondsmen
- Mostly used for domestic work, not agriculture
- Slaves were gifts given to priests (along with cows), but never land
Status of Women
Despite being a patriarchal society, women enjoyed greater status and freedoms than in later times.
| Rights and Practices | Status in Rig Vedic Period |
| Participation in assemblies | ✅ Allowed (Sabha, Vidatha) |
| Education & Vedic hymns | ✅ Yes, 17 women composed hymns |
| Marriage freedom | ✅ Choice of husband, no child marriage |
| Widow remarriage | ✅ Allowed, including levirate marriage |
| Practice of sati | ❌ Not present |
| Desire for male children | ✅ Yes, but girl child not unwanted |
🔥 Though sons were preferred, daughters were not despised. The Rig Vedic prayer often asked for praja (children) and pashu (cattle) — not specifically sons alone.
Religious Beliefs of the Rig Vedic People
The religion of this era reflects the worldview of pastoral nomads:
Main Features:
- No temples or idol worship
- No formal priesthood hierarchy
- Worship was conducted through hymns (suktas) and rituals (yajnas)
- Offerings included milk, ghee, grains, and occasionally animal sacrifice
Nature-Based Deities:
| God | Domain | Importance |
| Indra | God of war and rain | Most mentioned (destroyer of forts – Purandara) |
| Agni | Fire deity | Mediator between gods and men |
| Varuna | Cosmic order | Morality, justice |
| Soma | Plant/God of intoxication | Associated with Soma drink |
| Vayu | Wind | Life breath |
| Surya | Sun | Energy and light |
| Aditi, Usha | Female deities | Lesser importance than male gods |
🔱 The Rig Vedic religion was anthropomorphic—natural elements were given human forms and personality traits.
Important Rig Vedic Terms (For Quick Recall)
| Term | Meaning |
| Go | Cow |
| Gavishthi | War (search for cows) |
| Gomat | Wealthy man with many cattle |
| Goghna | Guest (fed with cow meat) |
| Duhitri | Daughter (one who milks the cow) |
| Ayas | Copper/Bronze |
| Nishka | Gold ornament |
| Vedi | Fire altar (used in yajnas) |
| Soma | Intoxicating drink used in rituals |
✨ Final Takeway:
The Early Vedic society was tribal, mobile, and nature-loving. Religion reflected their awe of the environment. Social organisation was fluid, but roots of caste, patriarchy, and hierarchy began to emerge. Women had considerable freedoms, assemblies functioned democratically, and religious thought developed not in temples—but around fire altars beneath open skies.