Indian Philosophical Systems
📍Two Broad Classifications
Indian philosophy, unlike Western philosophy, is not just about abstract thinking—it is aimed at moksha (liberation). Based on their belief in the authority of the Vedas, Indian philosophical systems are divided into two categories:
| Aspect | Astika | Nastika |
|---|---|---|
| Vedic Authority | Accepted | Rejected |
| Belief in God | Accepted in most schools | Rejected or questioned |
| Belief in Atman | Affirmed | Rejected or reinterpreted |
| View on Liberation | Achieved through Vedic rituals, knowledge, or meditation | Achieved through personal effort or practical methods |
| Examples | Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, Vedanta | Carvaka, Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika |
🧠 Nav Darshanas (Nine Indian Philosophies)
| Type | Schools (Darshanas) |
|---|---|
| Astika | Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa, Vedanta |
| Nastika | Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka |
🧩 The Six Orthodox Schools (Shad Darshanas)
1. Samkhya – Foundation of Indian Rationalism
- Founder: Sage Kapila
- Core Idea: World evolves through two realities:
- Prakriti (Nature) – material cause
- Purusha (Spirit) – conscious observer
- No need of God – Pure rational and dualistic system
- Means of knowledge: Perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), and scriptural testimony (shabda)
- Goal: Disentangle Purusha from Prakriti → achieve moksha
- Key Texts: Sankhya Sutra by Kapila and Sankhya Karika by Iswarkrishna
Initially materialistic, later incorporated spiritualism
2. Yoga – Path of Discipline and Meditation
- Founder: Sage Patanjali
- Core Idea: Union of Atman with Paramatman via:
- Asanas (physical postures)
- Pranayama (breathing)
- Dhyana (meditation)
- Accepts Samkhya metaphysics but adds belief in God
- Emphasizes practical discipline over pure reasoning
- Key Text: Yoga Sutra of Patanjali. This work advocates the eightfold path of Yoga, popularly known as “Ashtanga Yoga” (Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi) for the all-round development of human beings.
- The Ashtangas are ways to control the human psyche, beginning with moral constraints (Yama and Niyama) and ending with the trance states of Samadhi.
Patanjali: Philosopher, mystic, and medical thinker (2nd BCE – 5th CE)
3. Nyaya – The School of Logic and Epistemology
- Founder: Sage Gautama
- Core Idea: Clear logic is necessary to attain truth and liberation
- Emphasizes critical reasoning, five-step logic method (Nyaya syllogism)
- Tools: Inference (anumana), perception (pratyaksha), analogy (upamana), testimony (shabda)
- Key Text: Nyaya Sutra by Akshapada Gautama of 2nd C CE.
This is the mother of Indian epistemology
4. Vaisheshika – Atomic Theory in Ancient India
- Founder: Sage Kanada
- Focus: Universe is made of atoms (paramanu)
- Six (later seven) padarthas (categories): substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, inherence, non-existence
- Salvation through understanding the physical world
- Key Text: Vaisesika Sutra of Kanada.
Gives early ideas on physics and metaphysics
5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) – Ritualism and Vedic Authority
- Founder: Sage Jaimini
- Focus: Vedas are eternal and infallible
- Emphasizes ritual action (karma) as the path to liberation
- Upholds varna system and priestly rituals
- Belief: Good karma → heaven; moksha only if karma is exhausted
- Key Text: Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini (5-4 centuries BCE).
It defended Brahmanical orthodoxy and priesthood
6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) – The Essence of the Vedas
- Founder: Badarayana (Veda Vyasa)
- Core Idea: Atman = Brahman; Realization of this leads to moksha
Texts: Upanishads + Brahma Sutras + Bhagavad Gita = Prasthanatrayi
Sub-Schools of Vedanta Philosophy
| School | Founder | Core Belief | Path to Moksha |
|---|---|---|---|
| Advaita (non-dualism) | Adi Shankaracharya | Atman = Brahman; World is Maya (illusion) | Jnana (self-knowledge) |
| Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) | Ramanujacharya | Atman is part of Brahman; unity with difference | Bhakti (loving devotion) |
| Dvaita (dualism) | Madhvacharya | Atman and Brahman are completely distinct; soul is dependent | Devotion + meditation |
The Ashtangas or the Eight Limbs of Yoga
| Yoga Limb (Ashtanga) | Meaning | Core Idea / Description | Key Elements / Examples |
| Yama | Moral restraints or controls | Ethical disciplines that regulate behaviour and prevent harm through actions, words, and thoughts. These are the “don’ts” of conduct. | Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (chastity/self-control), Aparigraha (non-possessiveness). |
| Niyama | Personal observances | Positive duties or practices that cultivate discipline and inner purity. These are the “do’s” of conduct, complementing Yama. | Shaucha (purity of mind and body), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (self-discipline), Svadhyaya (study of sacred scriptures), Ishvara-pranidhana (devotion or surrender to the Supreme). |
| Asana | Physical posture | A posture that is steady and comfortable. Originally referred to meditation sitting posture but later expanded to all physical yoga poses. | Sitting, standing, reclining, inverted, twisting, and balancing postures. |
| Pranayama | Regulation of breath | Practice of controlling and focusing breathing to regulate prana (life energy) and elevate inner vitality. | Breathing techniques that enhance prana-shakti (life force). |
| Pratyahara | Withdrawal of senses | Withdrawal of the five senses from external objects, turning awareness inward. Serves as a bridge between external and internal yoga practices. | Connects Bahiranga (external limbs) — Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama — with Antaranga (internal limbs) — Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi. |
| Dharana | Concentration | Fixing the mind’s attention on a specific object, point, or part of the body after sensory withdrawal. | Focused mental concentration. |
| Dhyana | Meditation | Continuous meditation leading to deeper awareness of the Self (Atman) and its relation to the Ultimate Reality. | Sustained contemplation and spiritual awareness. |
| Samadhi | Absorption or enlightenment | The final stage of yoga where the practitioner experiences complete spiritual absorption and blissful superconsciousness. | Union of the individual consciousness with the ultimate reality. |
🧘♂️ Comparison Summary: Six Schools of Indian Philosophy
| School | Founder | Key Focus | Path to Moksha |
|---|---|---|---|
| Samkhya | Kapila | Dualism: Prakriti + Purusha | Knowledge (Jnana) |
| Yoga | Patanjali | Practical discipline and meditation | Control of body-mind-senses |
| Nyaya | Gautama | Logic and critical thinking | Logical inference and correct knowledge |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada | Atomism and material categories | Scientific inquiry into nature |
| Mimamsa | Jaimini | Vedic rituals and karma | Performance of yajnas |
| Vedanta | Badarayana (Vyasa) | Ultimate unity of Atman and Brahman | Self-realization and spiritual awakening |
🛕 Broad Philosophical Trends
- The earlier systems (Samkhya, Vaisheshika) are more scientific/rational
- The middle systems (Nyaya, Yoga) balance logic with discipline
- The latter systems (Mimamsa, Vedanta) are more ritualistic/spiritual
- Despite their differences, all accept Moksha as the final goal
🔍 For UPSC Mains:
- Know the founders, core ideas, and comparison tables
- Use examples like Nyaya = Indian logic, Samkhya = dualism, Vedanta = monism
- For essays or ethics papers, Vedanta or Yoga insights can be beautifully used in value-based questions