Sangha and Monastic Life in Buddhism

The Buddha believed that true knowledge, or liberation from suffering, could not be attained while living a life bound by worldly pleasures and responsibilities. Thus, he established a Sangha — a community of dedicated men and women who left their homes and lives behind to pursue the path of Dhamma.

🧘‍♂️ What was the Sangha?

The Sangha was an organised monastic order of bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns) who renounced the household life and devoted themselves to meditation, ethical conduct, and teaching others.

They lived a disciplined and simple life:

• No material possessions
• Depended on alms (bhiksha) for food
• Spent time in meditation and study
• Travelled to spread the message of the Buddha

The Sangha was not merely a spiritual community, but also a social revolution — open to all castes, classes, and genders, which made it radically inclusive for that time.

👩‍🦱 Women in the Sangha

Initially, the Sangha was restricted to men, but later, women were also allowed to join. This was due to the insistence of Ananda, Buddha’s closest companion and attendant.

• Mahapajapati Gotami, Buddha’s foster mother, became the first bhikkhuni (ordained nun).
• A separate Sangha was created for women with its own rules, including some stricter codes regarding travel and residence.

Despite the restrictions, many bhikkhunis became revered teachers, attaining liberation and were known as Theris — a title of respect for enlightened nuns (just as Thera for monks).

🏛️ Rules and Governance of the Sangha

• The rules of monastic discipline were compiled in the Vinaya Pitaka, one of the three main Buddhist scriptures.
• The Sangha was democratic in its functioning — decisions were taken by consensus, and if not possible, then by voting.
• Membership was open to all, but some formal permissions were required:
  • Children needed parental consent
  • Slaves required master’s approval
  • Servants needed employer’s permission
  • Debtors needed creditors’ consent
  • Married women had to take husband’s approval

➡️ This reflects how Buddhism respected individual agency, but did not advocate rebellion against existing social obligations.

🙏 Types of Disciples

Buddha’s followers were of two kinds:

1. Monastic Disciples (Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis):

• Lived full-time spiritual lives
• Famous examples:
  • Sariputra – known for wisdom
  • Moggallana – known for psychic powers
  • Ananda – Buddha’s personal attendant and “Treasurer of the Dhamma” because he remembered and recited many of Buddha’s discourses

2. Lay Followers (Upasikas and Upasakas):

• Ordinary householders who followed Dhamma while continuing family life
• They supported the Sangha through donations, food, and services, and in return received teachings and guidance

UPSC Sample Question:

Q. While Gautama Buddha’s own renunciation was an act of personal rebellion, the Sangha later institutionalized rules requiring social approvals for joining. Discuss the evolution of the Sangha in light of this tension between spiritual freedom and societal order.

Model Answer:

Gautama Buddha’s renunciation of worldly life — without seeking permission from his family — marked a profound assertion of individual moral agency. It reflected a personal rebellion against ritualistic orthodoxy and material attachments in pursuit of truth.

However, as the Sangha evolved into a structured institution, the Vinaya Pitaka codified rules requiring social approvals — such as parental consent for children, spousal approval for married individuals, and permission from masters or creditors. This shift reflects Buddhism’s pragmatic approach to reconciling personal spirituality with social responsibility.

Rather than contradicting Buddha’s ideals, these rules aimed to prevent familial and societal disruption. They were designed to safeguard the moral legitimacy and public image of the Sangha in a hierarchical society, ensuring it was not seen as promoting irresponsibility or rebellion.

The evolution thus reflects Buddhism’s Middle Path — balancing personal liberation with ethical obligations. The Sangha became not just a refuge for spiritual seekers, but a disciplined community that respected social harmony while reforming it from within.

In essence, Buddhism transitioned from a radical personal journey to a socially embedded movement, ensuring its acceptance, longevity, and wide societal impact.

🏠 What were Viharas?

• Initially, monks wandered throughout the year, teaching people.
• However, during the rainy season (chaturmas), travel was difficult. So, temporary shelters were arranged in gardens or caves.
• Over time, the need for permanent residences led to the construction of monasteries, called Viharas.

Features:

• Initially made of wood, later of brick or rock-cut caves
• Built with donations from wealthy traders, kings, and landowners
• Became centres of learning, discussion, and meditation
• Often evolved into great universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila in later centuries

➡️ In essence, Viharas were the educational campuses of ancient India, with the Sangha as its intellectual faculty.

📍 Important Places in Buddha’s Life

Place	Event
Lumbini	Birth
Bodh Gaya	Enlightenment (Nirvana)
Sarnath	First sermon (Dhammachakrapravartana)
Kushinagar	Death (Mahaparinirvana)

These became the four holiest Buddhist pilgrimage sites, forming the Buddha Charika Path (Buddha’s Sacred Geography).

🛕 Symbols Used to Represent Buddha in Early Art

In the early phase of Buddhism, especially during Mauryan and early Sunga period, Buddha was not depicted in human form. Instead, his presence was represented through symbols — a tradition rooted in the aniconic phase of Buddhist art.

Symbol	Represents
Lotus & Bull	Birth
Horse	Mahabhinishkramana – Great Renunciation
Empty Throne	Meditation under the Bodhi tree
Peepal Tree	Enlightenment (Nirvana)
Wheel (Dharmachakra)	First Sermon at Sarnath (Dhammachakrapravartana)
Stupa	Mahaparinirvana (Death and Final Liberation)

🧱 Stupas and Relic Worship

• After Buddha’s death, his relics (saririka dhatu) were cremated and divided into eight parts.
• These relics were enshrined in stupas, which became sacred monuments of worship.
• Two additional stupas were later made:
  • One over the ashes of the funeral pyre
  • Another over the urn that contained the relics

➡️ These ten stupas are the earliest Buddhist shrines, and Emperor Ashoka later opened seven of them to redistribute relics into 84,000 stupas across his empire, popularising Buddhism.

✨ Three Jewels of Buddhism (Triratna)

Buddhism rests on three foundational pillars:

1. Buddha – The Enlightened One
2. Dhamma – His teachings (Sanskrit: Dharma)
3. Sangha – The monastic community preserving and spreading the Dhamma

Every Buddhist formally takes refuge in these Three Jewels, which symbolize the essence of spiritual life in Buddhism.