Sangam Literature

Let us now take a journey into Tamilakam, the ancient land of the Tamils, where poetry wasn’t just literature—it was life itself.

What is Sangam?

The word Sangam literally means assembly or confluence—in this context, it refers to a grand literary gathering or academy (Tamil Sangam) where learned poets, philosophers, and scholars came together to create, critique, and celebrate poetry. These gatherings were held under the patronage of the Pandya kings, and according to Tamil tradition, three Sangams were held:

Sangam	Place	Presiding Sage	Surviving Texts
First	Thenmadurai	Agastya	None survived
Second	Kapadapuram	Agastya	Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar
Third	Madurai	Nakkiar	All major surviving Sangam texts

📝 Only the works of the Third Sangam have come down to us in substantial quantity.

Time Period of Sangam Literature

Historians are not in full agreement about the exact chronology. However, most scholars place the composition of Sangam literature roughly between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. Initially passed down orally, these poems were written down only after several generations, highlighting the strong oral tradition of ancient India.

Nature and Classification of Sangam Literature

Sangam literature is not one homogeneous body of work. It is broadly classified into two streams:

A. Melkannakku or Eighteen Major Works – Narrative Poetry

This is the heart of classical Sangam literature.

1. Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies):
   • Natrinai, Kurunthogai, Aingurunuru, Patitruppathu, Paripadal, Kalithogai, Akananuru, Purananuru
2. Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls):
   • Thirumurugatrupatai, Porunaratrupatai, Sirupanatruppatai, Perumpanatruppatai, Mullaipattu, Maduraikanchi, Nedunalvadai, Kurinjipattu, Pattinappalai, Malaipadukadam

Each poem in these works is a gem, reflecting deep emotions, battles, social norms, and the vibrant culture of ancient Tamil society.

Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu are thematically divided into:

Akam (Inner Field)	Puram (Outer Field)
Emotions, love, personal life	War, valor, kingship, society

🎭 Just like Rasa in Sanskrit literature, Akam and Puram give a psychological and thematic frame to Tamil poetry.

B. Kilkanakku or Pathinenkilkanakku – Didactic Literature

These are Eighteen Minor Works focused not on storytelling but on ethics, morals, and wisdom. They resemble niti shastra or maxims for a righteous life. They include works like Naladiyar and Acharakkovai.

Two Legendary Works: Tolkappiyam and Tirukkural

✅ Tolkappiyam – Grammar meets Culture

• Authored by Tolkappiyar, believed to be a disciple of Sage Agastya.
• It’s the oldest surviving Tamil text, dealing with grammar, phonetics, poetics, and also gives a snapshot of Tamil society, customs, and values.
• Though it is a grammar text, its sociological insights make it a treasure for historians.

✅ Tirukkural – Ethics in Couplets

• Authored by Thiruvalluvar (though his name appears only later in Thiruvalluva Malai).
• Comprises 1,330 couplets (kurals) that cover three key themes:
  • Aram (Virtue) 🧘
  • Porul (Wealth) 💰
  • Inbam (Love/Enjoyment) 💞
• Regarded as the Bhagavad Gita of the Tamil world, it is secular, universal, and timeless.

Sage Agastya: The Bridge Between North and South

• One of the Saptarishis of Vedic tradition.
• Credited with bringing Vedic and Sanskritic culture to the South.
• Authored many Sanskrit works, but also believed to have developed an early Tamil grammar, Agattiyam (now lost).
• Considered the Father of Tamil Language.
• Also revered in Siddha medicine tradition, with his name linked to the Agathiyar Thapanam, an early medical university in Sri Lanka.

Tamil Epics: Post-Sangam Brilliance

After the Sangam era, Tamil literary excellence continued with the Five Great Tamil Epics (Aimperumkappiyam). These reflect mature social and religious evolution.

Epic	Religion	Period	Significance
Silappathikaram	Jain	4th–6th CE	Tragic tale of Kannagi, symbolic of dharma
Manimekalai	Buddhist	6th CE approx.	Spiritual quest of Manimekalai
Jivaka Chintamani	Jain	10th CE	Courtly romance, spiritual themes
Valayapathi	Jain	Lost (known via references)
Kundalakesi	Buddhist	Lost (partially preserved)

✅ Silappathikaram – The Epic of Kannagi

• Authored by Ilango Adigal, a Jain monk.
• Tells the story of Kannagi, a devoted wife who avenges her husband Kovalan’s wrongful death by burning the city of Madurai.
• It’s not just literature—it’s a cultural commentary, full of geographical references, social critiques, and emotional intensity.

✅ Manimekalai – The Buddhist Perspective

• Sequel to Silappathikaram, composed by Sittalai Sattanar.
• Focuses on Manimekalai, daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who becomes a Buddhist nun and seeks salvation.
• More religious and philosophical than literary, it reflects Buddhist values in a Tamil context.

Earliest Tamil Inscriptions and Scripts

• The Brahmi script was used to write Tamil as early as 2nd–1st century BCE.
• Found in over 75 inscriptions in natural caves of Madurai region, especially linked to Jain and Buddhist monks.
• These inscriptions contain early Tamil with Prakrit influences.

✅ Conclusion: Why is Sangam Literature Important for UPSC?

Sangam literature is not just about poems. It is a mirror of ancient South India, providing direct evidence of:

• Political history (kings, wars, chieftains)
• Social life (customs, women’s status, love)
• Economic activities (trade, ports, agriculture)
• Religious beliefs (Jainism, Buddhism, early Hinduism)
• Linguistic development (classical Tamil, Brahmi script)

🔍 For the UPSC aspirant, Sangam literature bridges the gap between archaeological data and cultural history. It offers a rare indigenous source from the early historic period of South India.

Let us remember what Kannagi did in Silappathikaram—her love, her fury, her demand for justice. That’s not just a story. That’s the spirit of a civilization that prized truth, dharma, and expression.

Social Evolution as Reflected in Sangam Texts

Let’s now move beyond literature into what Sangam texts reveal about the society of that era—how it functioned, how it evolved, and how it was structured.

Stages of Social Evolution in Sangam Literature

Sangam texts, both narrative (Melkannakku) and didactic (Kilkanakku), allow us to reconstruct different phases of social life in ancient Tamilakam.

These texts are more than poetry—they serve as historical windows, describing everything from daily occupations to warfare, from cultural practices to economic life.

Warrior Culture and Heroic Ethos

The narrative Sangam poems are often described as heroic poetry. Here, warriors were not just fighters—they were cultural icons, immortalized in verse.

• Perpetual wars and cattle raids were recurring themes.
• Heroic deaths were glorified, and the warrior who died in battle was venerated, his memory preserved in the form of Hero Stones (Virarkal).

🪦 Virarkal (Hero Stones): These were memorial stones erected to honour warriors who sacrificed their lives for their kings or communities. This aligns closely with the megalithic burial practices, where stone circles were used to mark the graves.

Material Culture and Megalithic Linkages

Archaeological evidence strongly supports what the texts suggest:

• Iron tools like arrowheads, swords, spears, lances, and horse-bits have been found.
• These tools were primarily used for war and hunting, again supporting the idea of a martial society.

🛠️ Tools like hoes and sickles are found at many sites, but ploughshares are absent—indicating an early agrarian economy still in transition from hunting-pastoral lifestyles.

🔁 This transitional phase, with its megalithic cultural continuity, is believed to have been the historical backdrop of early Sangam society.

Occupations and Society: An Agrarian Hierarchy Emerges

Sangam literature offers clear references to emerging social classes in villages and urban centers:

Class	Occupation/Status
Vellalar	Large landowners
Uzhavar	Ploughmen (cultivators)
Adimai	Slaves
Kadaisiyar	Landless laborers

This stratification tells us that land ownership had become a basis for social status, and agrarian society was beginning to take shape.

Political Organization and Early State Formation

The Sangam texts also give glimpses of rudimentary state structures:

• Kingship was hereditary; kings led battles and protected their territory.
• Armies were organized groups of warriors.
• There were early taxation systems, judiciary elements, and references to justice being administered.
• Cities like Madurai, Kanchi, Uraiyur, Korkai, and Puhar are mentioned—indicating urbanization and economic specialization.

🏛️ These literary records are corroborated by Roman-Greek accounts and by excavations at key Sangam sites.

Presence of Brahmanas and Sanskritic Influence

Though early Sangam texts are predominantly secular and indigenous in tone, later didactic works show Sanskritic influence:

• Many didactic texts were authored by Brahmana scholars trained in Prakrit and Sanskrit.
• These texts prescribe social codes, ethical conduct, and duties of various classes, including kings and subjects.
• This cultural influence became prominent after the 4th century CE, particularly under the Pallavas, when Brahmanas appeared in large numbers in the Tamil region.

📜 Texts now begin referring to:

• Grants of villages (i.e., land grants to Brahmanas)
• Kings claiming Solar and Lunar dynastic lineages, mirroring North Indian political traditions

🧩 Thus, we see gradual Sanskritization and the blending of Aryan and Dravidian cultures in South India.

The Decline of the Sangam Age

All historical phases must end, and the Sangam period too gradually declined by the end of the 3rd century CE.

📉 What Happened?

• The three great Tamil kingdoms—Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas—began to fade from prominence.
• Their territories were taken over by a mysterious group called the Kalabhras, about whom very little is known.
• This “Kalabhra Interregnum” lasted from around c. 300 CE to 600 CE and is sometimes called the Dark Age of Tamil history, due to the scarcity of inscriptions or literature from this period.

🛡️ The Rise of Pallavas and Revival of Order

• By the 6th century CE, the Pallavas in Northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in the south reasserted control.
• This marked the end of the Kalabhra phase and ushered in a new era of temple building, Sanskrit-Tamil synthesis, and inscriptional records.

✅ Conclusion: Why Is This Important for UPSC?

This entire Sangam phase provides rich insight into:

• The evolution of society from pastoral to agrarian
• Heroic culture and early state formation
• Cultural links between megalithic traditions and classical Tamil literature
• Early urban centers and trade connections
• Brahmanical influence and early Sanskritization in South India

📚 For UPSC, the Sangam Age is not just about literature—it’s a vital piece of India’s early historical jigsaw, giving us a South Indian perspective often missing in early Indian historiography dominated by northern narratives.