The Bhakti Movement in South India
🕉️ What Sparked the Movement?
In the early medieval period (7th to 9th century CE), South India witnessed a revival of popular Hinduism:
- Expressed through devotional songs (bhakti sangeet),
- Written in regional languages (Tamil in the south),
- And meant for mass participation, not just elite ritualism.
This marked the rise of the Bhakti movement, which was:
- Inclusive in spirit,
- Anti-ritualistic in philosophy,
- And emotional and personal in its mode of worship.
🌟 Pioneers of the Movement: Nayanars and Alvars
🔸 Nayanars (Shaivite Saints)
- Devotees of Shiva.
- Came from diverse castes, including so-called untouchables like Pulaiyars.
- Famous names: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Manikkavacakar.
🔹 Alvars (Vaishnavite Saints)
- Devotees of Vishnu.
- Also caste-diverse; included Andal, a woman saint.
- Famous names: Periyalvar, Nammalvar, Tondaradippodi Alvar, Andal.
✅ They travelled widely, composed devotional poems (bhakti padavali), set them to music, and worshipped deities at specific shrines—many of which later became major temple towns.
📚 Key Compositions and Compilations
| Tradition | Text / Anthology | Saints Involved |
|---|---|---|
| Shaiva (Nayanars) | Tevaram (Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar) Tiruvacakam (Manikkavacakar) | 63 Nayanars |
| Vaishnava (Alvars) | Nalayira Divyaprabandham (“4000 Divine Verses”) | 12 Alvars: Periyalvar, Andal, Nammalvar, etc. |
📖 These poems became part of temple rituals and were recited like mantras—blurring lines between popular devotion and classical worship.
🧭 Bhakti Typologies: Saguna vs Nirguna
Historians categorize Bhakti into two streams:
- Saguna Bhakti (God with form)
- Worship of anthropomorphic deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Devi, etc.
- Rituals, images, temples are central.
- Nirguna Bhakti (Formless divine)
- Worship of a formless, abstract god (Brahman-like idea).
- Emphasizes inner realization, not outer form.
👉 In the South Indian context, Saguna Bhakti was more dominant during this phase.
⚖️ Caste and Gender: Inclusivity in Action
One of the most revolutionary aspects of early Bhakti traditions was social inclusivity:
- Saints came from all castes—Brahmanas to untouchables.
- Women like Andal (Alvar) and Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Nayanar) became revered spiritual figures.
- Andal’s songs are even part of temple recitations today.
🔎 Interpretation:
Some historians view this as a subtle protest against Brahmanical dominance and caste rigidity. Though not fully anti-caste, the Bhakti movement definitely offered a parallel space for spiritual equality.
📛 Opposition to Buddhism and Jainism
Bhakti saints, especially Nayanars and Alvars, were vocally critical of Jainism and Buddhism.
- Their poems often contained satirical or hostile references.
- This was not just theological—it reflected competition for royal patronage.
📌 Context: As Bhakti gained popularity, older traditions like Jainism and Buddhism began to decline in the South.
📜 Integration with Sanskritic Tradition
South Indian Bhakti influenced Pan-Indian Hinduism. A key example:
- Bhagavata Purana (10th century CE, South India origin)
- Based on Vishnu and his avatars—especially Krishna.
- Reflected Vaishnava bhakti ideas from Tamil tradition, but in Sanskrit.
This was part of a cultural fusion—regional devotion + classical Sanskrit cosmology.
🛕 Relations with the State: Temple Patronage
- Rulers, especially Cholas (9th–13th centuries), supported Bhakti traditions.
- Constructed massive temples: Brihadeshwara (Thanjavur), Gangaikonda Cholapuram, etc.
- Granted land to temples and Brahmanas.
- This ensured political legitimacy + support from popular religion.
🗿 Some of the finest bronze sculptures of Shiva (Nataraja) were created during this time, combining art, religion, and statecraft.
Philosophy and Bhakti: Three Pillars of Vedanta Tradition
When we study the Bhakti movement in medieval India, we often think of saint-poets and their emotionally charged devotion to God. But alongside this devotional wave, three major philosophers emerged who laid the intellectual foundation of Hindu thought during this period—Adi Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, and Madhvacharya. Each of them proposed a different way to understand the relationship between the soul (Atman), the world (Maya), and the Supreme Reality (Brahman or Ishvara).
Adi Shankaracharya – The Non-Dualist (Advaita Vedanta)
- Born in 8th century Kerala, Adi Shankaracharya revolutionized Hindu philosophy by advocating Advaita Vedanta—a doctrine of absolute non-dualism.
- According to him, there is no real distinction between the individual soul (Atman) and the Supreme Reality (Brahman). They are one and the same.
- He taught that the world is Maya (illusion)—temporary and misleading. Only Brahman is real, and to attain Moksha (liberation), one must rise above the illusion through Jnana (true knowledge).
- He discouraged ritualism and blind faith and emphasized intellectual inquiry and renunciation.
- To spread his teachings across India, he founded four mathas (monastic centers) in the four cardinal directions:
- Jyotir Matha – Badrinath (North)
- Govardhana Matha – Puri (East)
- Sharada Peetham – Dwarka (West)
- Sharada Peetham – Shringeri (South)
These mathas became intellectual centers of Hindu learning and still play a major role in religious discourse.
Sri Ramanujacharya – The Qualified Non-Dualist (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta)
- Born in 11th century Tamil Nadu, Ramanuja was influenced by the Alvars, the Tamil Vaishnavite saints.
- He proposed Vishishtadvaita, or qualified non-dualism—a middle path between absolute non-dualism and dualism.
- In his view, the soul and Brahman are different but inseparable, just like a spark and fire. The soul can unite with Brahman but retains its individuality.
- Bhakti (devotion), especially towards Vishnu, is the path to salvation. Ramanuja emphasized grace over knowledge and said divine love, not just intellectual understanding, leads to liberation.
- He played a pivotal role in converting King Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysalas from Jainism to Vaishnavism, showing his influence in South Indian religious life.
Sri Madhvacharya – The Dualist (Dvaita Vedanta)
- In 13th century Karnataka, Sri Madhvacharya introduced Dvaita Vedanta, or dualism.
- He asserted a permanent difference between the individual soul (Atman) and Supreme God (Brahman/Vishnu).
- In his view, God is independent, while the soul and matter are dependent and distinct.
- Salvation is possible through Bhakti, renunciation, and deep meditation, but the soul can never become one with God.
- Madhvacharya established several mathas around Udupi, turning it into a hub for Dvaita teachings.
Connecting the Three Philosophies: A Conceptual Ladder
Imagine these three as forming a ladder of philosophical thought:
| Philosopher | Philosophy | Core View on Soul & God | Salvation Path |
|---|---|---|---|
| Adi Shankaracharya | Advaita (non-dualism) | Soul = Brahman (no difference) | Knowledge (Jnana) |
| Ramanujacharya | Vishishtadvaita (Qualified non-dualism) | Soul ≠ Brahman, but united | Devotion + Grace |
| Madhvacharya | Dvaita (Dualism) | Soul ≠ Brahman, always distinct | Devotion + Meditation |
Each system contributed to the Bhakti movement, making Hinduism more accessible, logical, and emotionally fulfilling for the common people.