Temple Architecture and the Bhakti Movement

The rise of the Bhakti movement in South India wasn’t just a philosophical or devotional revolution—it also triggered a spectacular wave of temple construction, especially under dynasties like the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, and Rashtrakutas. Temples became the physical symbols of devotion, political authority, and cultural unity.

🔱 Role of Kings in Temple Building

Bhakti saints popularized sacred spaces through their devotional poems and pilgrimages.
Kings, seeking political legitimacy and mass support, built temples at these sites, transforming them into institutional centers of Bhakti.
From the 10th to 12th centuries, especially under the Cholas and Pandyas, temple construction became large-scale, organized, and symbolically loaded.
Temples were not only religious spaces, but also:
- Economic centers (through land grants, taxes, donations)
- Social spaces (caste-based participation)
- Cultural hubs (music, dance, literature)
Temple inscriptions record land grants, patronage, and community contributions—evidence of their integral role in society.

🏛️ Important Rulers and Temples

Ruler	Dynasty	Temple(s) Built
Mahendravarman I	Pallava	Rock-cut mandapa-style temples
Narasimhavarman I	Pallava	Panchapandava Rathas (monolithic temples)
Rajasimha/ Narasimhavarman II	Pallava	Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchipuram), Shore Temple (Mamallapuram)
Rajaraja Chola	Chola	Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjavur)
Rajendra Chola	Chola	Gangaikondacholapuram Temple
Queen Lokamahadevi	Chalukya	Virupaksha Temple (Pattadakal)
Krishna I	Rashtrakuta	Monolithic Kailasa Temple (Ellora)

🏯 Pallava Temple Architecture: Evolution in 4 Phases

Rock-cut Temples (Mahendravarman I)
- Early experiments in carving mandapa-style temples into rock walls.
- Simple, with pillars and flat roofs.
Monolithic Rathas (Narasimhavarman I)
- Entire temples carved out of single boulders at Mamallapuram.
- Resemble processional chariots (rathas).
- Example: Panchapandava Rathas:
  - Dharmaraja Ratha: Tallest, 3-storeyed.
  - Others: Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula-Sahadeva, Draupadi.
Structural Temples (Rajasimha/ Narasimhavarman II)
- Transition from carving to building with stone blocks.
- Examples:
  - Kailasanatha Temple, Kanchipuram
  - Shore Temple, Mamallapuram
Later Pallava Period
- Smaller but Dravidian in style.
- Focus on aesthetics and refinement.

🪨 Key Features at Mamallapuram

🪔 Descent of the Ganga / Arjuna’s Penance

A massive rock relief, carved on two monolithic boulders.
Theme: Bhagiratha’s tapasya to bring the Ganga to earth.
Also interpreted as Arjuna’s penance for divine weapons.
Combines mythology, realism, and symbolism.
Built under Narasimhavarman I.

🪔 Shore Temple (UNESCO Site)

Built by Rajasimha Pallava, 700–728 CE.
One of the earliest structural temples in South India.
Unusual layout: Three shrines:
- Two for Shiva, facing east and west.
- One for Vishnu (Anantashayana).
Symbol of religious syncretism and evolving architectural vision.

🪔 Panchapandava Rathas

Five temples, each carved from a single granite block.
Not functional temples but architectural prototypes.
Demonstrate diversity of temple designs, from square to apsidal.

🧱 Temples as Socio-Economic Institutions

After the 8th century, temples began receiving land grants, often recorded on their walls.
Funded through:
- Royal donations
- Temple taxes
- Merchant guilds (e.g., Jain traders under the Chalukyas)
- Villagers (for status and spiritual merit)
Common folk continued worship of grama-devatas (village deities), but larger temples became aspirational and political spaces.

🗿Chola Temple Architecture: The Zenith of Dravidian Style

Imagine you’re standing before a towering temple in Tamil Nadu, the sun casting long shadows on its intricately carved walls, and the air filled with the scent of incense. What you’re witnessing is not just a place of worship—it’s a political statement, a symbol of cultural pride, and a monument of engineering excellence. This is the architectural legacy of the Chola dynasty, where the Dravidian style of temple construction reached its zenith.

Key Features of Chola Temple Architecture

Chola temples were primarily Shaiva and Vaishnava in tradition.
They represented the culmination of earlier Dravidian architectural evolution started by the Pallavas and improved by the Cholas.
Apart from religious significance, temples were epicenters of economic, social, and artistic activity.

Let’s look at the major temples that symbolize the maturity and magnificence of Chola architecture:

1. Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur (Rajarajeswara Temple)

Built by Rajaraja Chola I (early 11th century).
Dedicated to Lord Shiva, and is among the largest and tallest temples in India.
The temple contains one of the largest monolithic Shiva Lingas.
The second floor of the temple has an image of Tripurantaka Shiva, the conqueror of the three cities (Tripura) of the demons.
Symbolically, the grandeur of the temple reflects the power and cosmic role of the king, likening the ruler to Shiva himself.

2. Gangaikondacholapuram Temple

This temple was Constructed by Rajendra Chola I, the son of Rajaraja Chola.
Built to commemorate his victorious campaign to the Ganga region.
Though inspired by the Thanjavur temple, it has more intricate carvings and a slightly shorter vimana, showing refinement over grandeur.

3. Later Chola Temples

Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram and Kampahareswarar Temple, Tribhuvanam:
- Located in the Tanjore district.
- Reflect the mature phase of Chola temple art—more compact, finely ornamented, and detailed.

Bronze Sculpture: The Soul of Chola Art

Now, let’s shift from stone to metal. The Chola period was not just about architecture, but also about iconography—sculpting divine forms with such delicacy and spiritual depth that they’re celebrated even today.

Highlights of Chola Bronze Art

Bronze-making had existed since the Pallava period, but under the Cholas, it became transcendental.
Patronage from figures like Sembiyan Maha Devi, a widowed Chola queen, played a crucial role in encouraging temple donations of bronze icons.
The sculptures were cast using the lost-wax technique (cire-perdue method), which allowed high levels of detail and a sense of movement.

Key Sculptures and Their Symbolism

Ardhaparyanka Asana Shiva (Pallava period influence)
- Shiva is seated with one leg dangling (ardhaparyanka).
- Right hand in achamana mudra, suggesting he is about to drink the poison (Vishakantha legend).
- Signifies divine sacrifice and cosmic protection.
Nataraja – The Cosmic Dancer (Chola innovation)
- Represents Shiva as the Lord of Dance, balancing the universe through rhythm.
- Every aspect has meaning:
  - Damru (drum): Creation
  - Fire (Agni): Destruction
  - Right leg uplifted: Moksha (liberation)
  - Left leg crushing Apasmara: Ignorance
  - Aura of flames: Circle of life and cosmic cycles
Kalyanasundara Murti
- Shows Shiva marrying Parvati, accepting her hand with a bashful expression.
- Humanizes the divine—adds emotion and devotional intimacy to the icon.
Ardhanarisvara Murti
- The divine couple Shiva and Parvati merged into one form—half-male, half-female.
- Symbolizes the inseparability of masculine and feminine, creation through union.

🛕 Chalukya Temple Architecture – Cradle of Vesara Style

Let us begin with the Badami Chalukyas, who made a significant contribution to Indian temple architecture by developing the Vesara style, a unique blend of Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) elements. Think of it as a cultural confluence of architecture, where northern curvilinear shikharas met southern vimanas in harmonious structures.

🪨 Evolution of Chalukya Temples:

Early Phase – Rock-cut cave temples.
Later Phase – Structural stone temples.

A fine example of the early rock-cut style is the Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole—possibly the oldest known example of Chalukya rock architecture.

🛕 Classification of Chalukya Temples:

Excavated Cave Temples
Structural (Built) Temples

Badami stands out for having both types, whereas Aihole and Pattadakal are predominantly known for structural temples.

🕳️ Badami Cave Temples – Temples inside the Earth

There are four major cave temples in Badami, completed under Mangalesha, the brother of Kirtivarman I.

Cave I: Dedicated to Shiva.
Caves II & III: Dedicated to Vishnu (Cave III being the largest).
Cave IV: Dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras.

Noteworthy sculptures in Cave III include:

Vishnu as Ananta on the coiled serpent.
Varaha with Bhudevi, Harihara, and Narasimha in majestic postures.

🏛️ Aihole – Experimental Workshop of Temple Architecture

This was almost like an architectural lab with ~70 temples! Major ones include:

Ladh Khan Temple:
- Inspired by wooden-roofed Himalayan temples, but built in stone.
Durga Temple:
- Unique apsidal (semi-circular) shape, resembling a Buddhist chaitya.
- It has a Nagara-style shikhara and a surrounding veranda—a mix of old and new.
Huchimalligudi Temple
Jain Temple at Meguti

🛕 Pattadakal – The Crown of Vesara Architecture

Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, this site reflects the matured phase of Vesara architecture.

Virupaksha (Lokesvara) Temple: Commissioned by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her husband Vikramaditya II’s conquest of Kanchipuram. Built in pure Dravidian style.
Papnath Temple: Also dedicated to Shiva.

🪓 Rashtrakuta Temple Architecture – Rock Temples at Their Grandest

Now let’s travel westwards to Maharashtra, where the Rashtrakutas made history—literally carved it out of mountains!

🌄 Key Sites:

Ellora Caves (especially Cave 16 – Kailasa Temple)
Elephanta Caves (near Mumbai)

🏔️ Kailasanatha Temple (Cave 16, Ellora) – The Everest of Indian Temple Art

Built by Krishna I, this is the largest monolithic rock-cut temple in the world—an entire temple complex carved out of a single piece of stone from top to bottom.

🎥 THE GREATNESS OF THE KAILASH TEMPLE

🎭 Elephanta Caves – A Symphony of Shiva

Here, sculptural art truly reached its zenith. The most iconic sculpture is the 7-metre-tall Trimurti (Sadashiva):

Creator (left face)
Preserver (central face)
Destroyer (right face)

Other depictions include:

Nataraja (Lord of Dance)
Ardhanarishwara (half-male, half-female form)
Gangadhara and Yogishvara

📍 Located on an island off the coast of Mumbai.

It is believed that the same artists may have worked at both Elephanta and Ellora, given the stylistic similarities.

🧱 Ellora Caves (Verul Leni) – A Spiritual Spectrum

A UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Charanadri Hills, near Aurangabad, these caves span from the 6th to 12th century CE.

Out of ~100 caves, 34 are prominent and divided as:

Caves 1–12: Buddhist
Caves 13–29: Brahmanical
Caves 30–34: Jaina

Two other cave groups: Ganesh Leni and Jogeshwari Leni.

⛏️ Patronage:

Dantidurga supported Cave 15.
Krishna I built the Kailasa Temple.
Kalachuris of Mahismati and Badami Chalukyas built caves like Cave 21 (Ramesvara) and Caves 1–10, before Rashtrakuta rule.

🔥The Virashaiva Tradition: A Reaction to Ritualism and Hierarchy

Let’s understand this topic not just as a historical development but as a social response to the dominant religious culture of its time.

Context: Rise of Temple Worship in South India

The Tamil Bhakti Movement of earlier centuries (mainly by Nayanars and Alvars) had glorified devotion through temple worship, idol veneration, and emotional connection with deities like Shiva and Vishnu.
Over time, this temple-centric devotion became institutionalized, bringing back ritualism, priestly dominance, and social stratification, especially through Brahmanical control of temples.

The Virashaiva Movement: An Internal Reform from Within Shaivism

Now emerges a revolutionary movement in 12th-century Karnataka, known as the Virashaiva or Lingayat tradition.

Founder and Leading Figures

Basavanna (1106–1168), a Brahmana minister in the Kalachuri court, was the main architect.
He was supported by other powerful voices like:
- Allama Prabhu
- Akkamahadevi
These thinkers collectively rejected the rising ritualism and caste oppression that had crept into devotional practices.

Core Ideals of Virashaivism / Lingayat Tradition

Aspect	Virashaiva Position
Caste	Rejected the Brahmanical caste hierarchy. Asserted equality of all human beings.
Women	Opposed the subordination of women; supported their spiritual agency.
Rituals & Idol Worship	Denounced ritualism, temple worship, and idol veneration.
Afterlife & Rebirth	Denied the theory of rebirth and karma cycles.
Funeral Practices	Rejected cremation; instead practised burial, believing the soul merges directly with Shiva.

Unique Beliefs and Practices

Worship of Linga: Not in temples, but as a personal emblem. Every follower wears a miniature Shiva linga in a silver case over the left shoulder.
Jangamas: Revered wandering monks, considered spiritually elevated.
Progressive Social Practices:
- Encouraged post-puberty marriages
- Supported widow remarriage
- Gave voice to the marginalized, especially those neglected by Dharmashastra prescriptions

Why It Was Revolutionary

Unlike mainstream Bhakti which still operated within temple systems, Virashaivism was radically anti-temple.
It questioned not only social hierarchy but also core metaphysical ideas of Hindu orthodoxy, such as rebirth.
Thus, it became a grassroots movement of social and spiritual reform, deeply relevant in understanding the plurality within medieval Indian religious thought..