Reforms in Western India in 19th Century

Now we have entered Western India, where socio-religious reform had its own unique flavour. Compared to Bengal, which was exposed earliest to English education and Christian missionary criticism, reform in Gujarat and Maharashtra was more gradual, practical, and people-oriented.

Manav Dharma Sabha (1844, Surat, Gujarat)

• Founded on 22 June 1844 by Durgaram Mehtaji (Durgaram Manchharam Dave), Dadoba Pandurang, and others.
• The first socio-religious reform organisation in Gujarat.
• Objectives:
  • Highlight true religion as based on truth and morality.
  • Promote monotheism (belief in one God).
  • Abolish superstition, witchcraft, black magic.
  • Encourage widow remarriage and discourage idol worship.
  • Reduce casteism.
• Methods:
  • Held Sunday public meetings, where reformist speeches were given.
• Decline: It had a short life, ending after Dadoba moved to Bombay (1846) and Durgaram to Rajkot (1852).

👉 Like the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal, it was rational and reformist, but it arose independently, reflecting the same spirit of questioning tradition.

Students’ Literary and Scientific Society (1848, Bombay)

• Founded by leading intellectuals: Naoroji Furdunji, Dadabhai Naoroji, Bhau Daji, Jagannath Shankar Shet, Vishwanath Mandlik, Sorabji Bengali, and others at the Elphinstone Institution.
• Purpose: To develop interest in literature and science — social reform over politics.
• Unique feature:
  • Members had to present research papers on scientific or social topics; repeated failure led to fines or expulsion.
  • Excluded political and religious debates to avoid controversy, but strongly promoted social reform.
• Branches:
  • Gujarati Dnyan Prasarak Mandali
  • Marathi Dnyan Prasarak Mandali
• Achievements:
  • Organised schools for girls (Parsis, Gujaratis, and Marathis supported this).
  • Jagannath Shankarshet donated a house for a girls’ school.
  • Bhau Daji funded schools.
  • Khershedji Cama gave major donations.

📌 Impact: Female education gained prominence — so much so that it was officially endorsed in the Wood’s Despatch (1854) and later reviewed by the Hunter Commission (1882).

Paramahansa Mandali (1849, Maharashtra)

• Founded in 1849 by Dadoba Pandurang, Durgaram Mehtaji, and friends.
• Significance: First socio-religious organisation in Maharashtra.
• Beliefs and Practices:
  • Monotheism.
  • Opposition to caste rules and idolatry.
  • Encouraged widow remarriage and women’s education.
  • In their meetings, members ate food cooked by low-caste people — a direct challenge to caste taboos.
• The Mandali operated secretly due to fear of orthodox backlash. Its exposure in 1860 hastened its decline.

👉 However, its legacy lived on: in 1867, it was reorganised as the Prarthana Samaj.

Prarthana Samaj (1867, Bombay)

• Founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in 1867, inspired by Keshub Chandra Sen’s visits to Bombay (1864 & 1867).
• Prominent leaders: M.G. Ranade, R.G. Bhandarkar, N.G. Chandavarkar.
• Ideology:
  • Inspired by Brahmo Samaj but did not break away from Hindu society.
  • Believed in reforming religion from within, not creating a separate sect.
  • Spread later to South India under Kandukuri Viresalingam.

Religious Approach

• Preached monotheism, opposed caste and priestly domination.
• Practical approach: They did not directly attack popular deities like Vithoba in Maharashtra. Instead, they explained that worshipping Vithoba was ultimately worshipping the one true God.
• Retained harmless traditions and ceremonies to avoid alienating people.

Social Reforms

• Prioritised social reform over theology:
  • Inter-dining and inter-caste marriages.
  • Promotion of widow remarriage.
  • Criticism of child marriage.
  • Female education.
• Publications: Subodha Patrika (weekly).

Practical Work

• Established night schools for labourers and their children.
• Launched Depressed Class Mission to fight untouchability.
• Set up asylums and orphanages at pilgrimage centres like Pandharpur, Dehu, and Alandi.

👉 Prarthana Samaj was thus a bridge between spiritual reform and social upliftment, practical in approach, moderate in tone, but progressive in outcome.

Perfect — now we are entering a very interesting dimension of 19th-century reform in Western India: intellectual resistance to colonial rule. Unlike tribal or peasant rebellions, which expressed anger through arms, here we see the first stirrings of resistance expressed through writing, journalism, and critical analysis. These early thinkers used the very tools of Western education to challenge colonial exploitation. Let’s try to understand this:

Intellectual Resistance in Western India

When the British consolidated their rule, it affected all sections of society: peasants suffered under land revenue systems, artisans faced ruin due to foreign imports, and traditional elites lost their privileges. Many communities revolted, but at the same time, a class of Western-educated Indians in Maharashtra began to challenge colonialism through ideas.

This was the beginning of what we may call the “economic and intellectual critique of colonialism”, laying foundations for later nationalist thought.

Balshastri Jambhekar (1812–1846): Father of Marathi Journalism

• A journalist and reformer, he used the press as a weapon of change.
• In 1832, he started Bombay Durpun (Darpan), the first Marathi newspaper, published in both Marathi and English.
  • It became a platform to criticise Brahminical orthodoxy, to support widow remarriage, and to encourage a scientific outlook.
• In 1840, he launched Digdarshan, the first Marathi monthly magazine, publishing articles on science, history, geography, and more.
• He admired Mountstuart Elphinstone and was himself appointed the first professor of Hindi at Elphinstone College, Mumbai.
• Also worked as Director of the Colaba Observatory.

👉 By linking journalism with social reform, he set the tone for vernacular journalism as a tool of awakening.

Bhaskar Pandurang Tarkhadkar (1816–1847): Early Critic of Colonialism

• A brilliant intellectual, he was among the first to articulate the “drain of wealth” theory—the idea that Britain was prospering by draining India’s resources.
• Writing under the pseudonym “A Hindoo”, he published eight letters in the Bombay Gazette (1841), where he:
  • Criticised the economic drain and destruction of Indian industries.
  • Opposed British education policy and racial discrimination.
  • Condemned the falsification of Indian history by writers like James Mill.
  • Attacked British imperialist wars in Afghanistan and China.
• He even dismissed the British claim of ruling by “Divine Providence”, calling it a false justification for colonial domination.

👉 He can be seen as a precursor to Dadabhai Naoroji, whose “Drain Theory” later became central to nationalist economic critique.

Bhau Mahajan (1815–1890): Pioneer Professional Editor

• Full name: Govind Vitthal Kunte, known popularly as Bhau Mahajan.
• First full-time professional journalist in Marathi.
• Founded and edited:
  • Prabhakar (1841)
  • Dhumketu (1853)
  • Periodical Dnyan Darshan
  • Contributed to Digdarshan.
• He exposed how the Industrial Revolution in England and modern transport in India devastated local industries and trade.
• Criticised the economic exploitation and drain of India’s wealth that enriched Britain.

👉 His work was crucial in shaping public awareness about economic injustice under colonialism.

Jagannath Shankarshet (1803–1865): Architect of Modern Bombay

• Popularly called Nana Shankarshet, he was a reformer, philanthropist, and educationist.
• Inspired by Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, he invested heavily in institutions that shaped modern Mumbai.

Education Contributions

• One of the founders of the Native School of Mumbai (1824), which evolved into:
  • Bombay Native Institution (1824)
  • Board of Education (1840)
  • Elphinstone Educational Institution (1856)
• Played a key role in founding:
  • Elphinstone College (1835)
  • Grant Medical College (1845)
  • Government Law College (1855)
  • University of Bombay (1857)
• Supported girls’ education, funding schools set up by the Students’ Literary and Scientific Society, even giving his own residence for the cause.

Cultural and Civic Works

• Helped establish the Dr. Bhau Daji Lad Museum with Sassoon and Jeejeebhoy.
• Promoted railways:
  • Member of the committee that created the Great Indian Peninsula Railway.
  • Present at the launch of India’s first train (Boribunder–Thane, 1853).

Political Role

• Co-founded the Bombay Association (1852), the first political organisation of the Bombay Presidency.
• In 1861, became the first Indian nominated to the Bombay Legislative Council.
• His legacy was carried forward by his son Vinayak Shankarshet, who instituted the Jagannath Shankarshet Sanskrit Scholarship (1866).

👉 Jagannath Shankarshet bridged the gap between philanthropy, education, and early political organisation — earning him the title “Architect of Modern Bombay.”

Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823–1892): Lokhitawadi

• One of the sharpest social critics of 19th-century Maharashtra.
• Wrote under the pen name Lokhitawadi in the Marathi weekly Prabhakar (1848–50).

Shatapatre (Hundred Letters)

• His famous series Shatapatre (hundred letters) boldly attacked:
  • Child marriage
  • Dowry system
  • Polygamy
  • Caste system
  • Monopoly of Brahmin priests in religion
• Advocated:
  • Widow remarriage
  • Women’s education
  • Rational reform, free of religious orthodoxy

👉 For Lokhitawadi, if religion obstructed reform, then religion itself must change. He placed social good above scriptural sanction, a very modern stance.

• He also contributed to starting several periodicals like Hitechhu, Gyan Prakash, and Indu Prakash.
• Thus, he made journalism a platform for social critique.

Vishnu Parashuram Shastri Pandit (1827–1876)

• A strong advocate of widow remarriage.
• Founded the Vidhva Vivaha Uttejak Mandal (Society for Encouragement of Widow Remarriage) in 1866.
• Translated Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s Vidhavavivaha (on widow remarriage) into Marathi in 1865.
• Edited the journal Indu Prakash, which became an important platform for reformist views.

👉 Interestingly, later on, Indu Prakash also published Aurobindo Ghosh’s fiery articles “New Lamps for Old”, where he attacked the moderate politics of the Congress.

Thus, Vishnu Shastri Pandit represents a bridge between Bengal’s Vidyasagar and Maharashtra’s reform movement, especially in the struggle for women’s upliftment.

Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842–1901): Justice Ranade

• The most systematic thinker among 19th-century reformers.
• A judge of the Bombay High Court, professor at Elphinstone College, and member of several reformist and political organisations.

Organisational Leadership

• Leading member of:
  • Prarthana Samaj (1867)
  • Pune Sarvajanik Sabha (1870)
  • Indian National Congress (1885)
  • Indian Social Conference (1887)
• Inspired the next generation — especially Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Religious Views

• A theist and monotheist. In his work Philosophy of Indian Theism, he expounded the idea of one God.
• Rejected Advaita Vedanta of Shankaracharya (non-dualism), because he believed man and God are distinct.
• Wanted to reform Hinduism from within, not reject it altogether.

Social Reform

• Believed that social, religious, political, and economic reforms are interdependent.
• Unlike Tilak, who prioritised politics, Ranade believed social reform is the foundation of national regeneration.
• Criticised:
  • Caste system and untouchability
  • Child marriage and polygamy
  • Idol worship and polytheism
  • Subjugation of women
• Supported:
  • Widow remarriage (founded Widows’ Remarriage Association, 1865)
  • Inter-caste marriage
  • Education for women and backward classes

Historical and Economic Thought

• Wrote The Rise of Maratha Power, highlighting the purposeful philosophy of the Maratha movement and Shivaji’s leadership.
• Argued that India’s poverty was due to overdependence on agriculture.
• Advocated industrialisation as the only way to eliminate mass poverty.

Political Thought

• A moderate nationalist.
• Believed in constitutional methods and reform through legal means, not revolution.
• His vision was to build a free, democratic society based on justice, liberty, and equality.

Sir Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1837–1925): Scholar and Social Reformer

• One of the most respected orientalists and reformers of his time.
• Along with Ranade, he was among the first graduates of Bombay University (1862).
• Academic career: taught Oriental languages at Elphinstone College (Bombay) and Deccan College (Pune).
• Later became the first Indian Vice-Chancellor of Bombay University (1893–95) and the first Indian awarded an LLD: Doctor of Laws (1904) by the same university.

As a Social Reformer

• Active in Paramahamsa Sabha and Prarthana Samaj.
• Strongly opposed child marriage, casteism, and alcoholism.
• Advocated women’s education and widow remarriage.
• Even conducted the widow remarriage of his own daughter (1891), citing Vedic authority (Atharvaveda, Aitareya Brahmana) to silence critics.

As an Orientalist

• Reconstructed the history of the Satavahanas and studied the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
• Recognised internationally; attended Orientalist conferences.
• On his 80th birthday (1917), the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) was founded in Pune, now a premier centre for Indological research.

Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati (1858–1922): The Pioneer of Women’s Liberation

• Born a Brahmin, she was a brilliant Sanskrit scholar, awarded the title “Pandita” by Calcutta University.
• Faced opposition for marrying Bipin Behari Medhvi, a non-Brahmin lawyer. Widowed in 1882, she dedicated her life to women’s emancipation.

Work for Women’s Upliftment

• Founded the Arya Mahila Samaj (1882, Pune) to promote women’s education and independence.
• Established Sharada Sadan (1889, Bombay; later Pune) — a home for widows offering education and vocational training. It evolved into the Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission.
• Authored The High-Caste Hindu Woman, exposing the plight of upper-caste widows.

Opposition and Conversion

• Orthodox Hindus opposed her, leading to her conversion to Christianity. This was controversial, but she continued her reformist work with greater freedom.
• Recognised internationally — received the Kaiser-i-Hind Award (1919) for her humanitarian services.

👉 Pandita Ramabai stands as the first organised feminist voice of India, linking social reform with women’s dignity and empowerment.

Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve (1858–1962): Champion of Women’s Education

• Known as “Maharshi Karve”, he lived over a century and dedicated his life to widow remarriage and women’s education.

Personal Example and Reform Work

• In 1883, after his first wife’s death, he married a widow — setting a bold example.
• Founded the Vidhwa Vivah Uttejak Mandali (Widow Remarriage Association, 1893).
• Established the Widow Home Association (1896) and Mahilashram (1896, Pune) for training widows as teachers, nurses, and midwives.

Education for Women

• Founded the Anath Balikashram (orphanage for girls).
• Established the Women’s University at Pune (1916) — India’s first women’s university, later named SNDT Women’s University after Shrimati Nathibai Damodar Thakersey, whose son funded it.

👉 Karve’s work institutionalised the cause of women’s empowerment and remains a lasting contribution.

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856–1895): Rationalist and Radical Reformer

• An educationist, freedom fighter, and uncompromising social critic.
• Early associate of Bal Gangadhar Tilak; together they founded:
  • New English School (1880)
  • Deccan Education Society (1884)
  • Fergusson College (1885)
• First editor of Tilak’s paper Kesari, later launched his own reformist journal Sudharak (1887).

Ideas and Beliefs

• Deeply influenced by Enlightenment thinkers — Voltaire, Rousseau, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Auguste Comte.
• Advocated rationalism, equality, humanism.
• Stressed that India’s freedom was impossible without social reform — caste abolition, women’s emancipation, ban on child marriage, and promotion of scientific thought.

Differences with Tilak

• Tilak: Social conservative, defender of Hindu tradition, saw politics as priority. Opposed British interference in Hindu customs (e.g., opposed the Age of Consent Act).
• Agarkar: Rationalist, supported reforms like the Age of Consent Act, insisted that social reform must come before political reform.

👉 This ideological split shaped the two currents of Indian nationalism: Tilak’s political-first conservatism vs. Agarkar’s social-first rationalism.

✅ In short: If Bengal reform was about awakening reason, Maharashtra reform was about organising institutions and movements — from Prarthana Samaj to SNDT University — which directly changed lives.