Three Early Kingdoms of Tamilakam: Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas
As we move deeper into the Sangam Age, the political landscape of South India was dominated by three major kingdoms — Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas — collectively known in Sangam literature as the Muvendar, meaning “Three Chiefs.”
These kingdoms were located in the region south of the Krishna River, primarily covering modern-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. They often fought amongst themselves, formed alliances, and even extended their influence to Sri Lanka and northern India, as mentioned in both Sangam poems and external sources.
🗺️ Geopolitical Overview
| Kingdom | Emblem | Capital (Interior) | Chief Port(s) | Notable Ruler |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chera | Bow | Karur / Karayur / Vanji | Muchiri (Musiri), Tondi | Senguttuvan |
| Chola | Tiger | Uraiyur | Puhar (Poompuhar / Kaveripattinam) | Karikalan |
| Pandya | Fish | Madurai | Korkai | Nedunchezhiyan |
🐟 The Pandyas
🧭 Territory & Capital:
- The oldest of the three Sangam kingdoms.
- Ruled from Madurai, occupying southern Tamil Nadu — including Tirunelveli, Ramnad, and Madurai districts.
⚓ Port & Trade:
- Their main port was Korkai, known for pearl fishing.
- Korkai is referred to as Kolkoi in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
- The Pandyas had trade relations with Rome and even sent embassies to Augustus Caesar.
📜 Literary Patronage:
- According to Tamil tradition, the Pandyas patronized the Sangams (Tamil literary academies).
- Sangam poems portray a wealthy and prosperous kingdom.
🕉️ Brahmanical Influence:
- Though the region had strong indigenous Tamil traditions, Brahmanas held significant influence.
- Pandya rulers performed Vedic sacrifices, indicating the co-existence of Sanskritic and local traditions.
⚔️ Famous Ruler: Nedunchezhiyan
- Known for his military success at Talayalanganam, where he defeated a confederacy of Cheras, Cholas, and Velir chieftains.
📉 Decline:
- By 3rd century CE, Pandya power declined due to the Kalabhra invasion.
- However, they made a comeback in the 6th century CE, expelling the Kalabhras.
🐅 The Cholas
🧭 Territory & Capitals:
- Ruled over central and northeastern Tamil Nadu (between Pennar and Vellar rivers).
- Capital was Uraiyur, known for cotton trade.
- Puhar (Poompuhar / Kaveripattinam) was the royal port city, a major trade hub and naval base.
🌊 Maritime Trade:
- Trade in cotton textiles, pearls, and spices flourished.
- Large dockyards excavated at Puhar highlight the Cholas’ maritime strength.
📖 Notable Literary Source: Pattinappalai
- Offers vivid details of Karikalan’s rule and the urban grandeur of Puhar.
⚔️ Famous Rulers:
Elara (2nd century BCE):
- Invaded and ruled Sri Lanka for nearly 50 years, highlighting early overseas ambitions.
Karikalan (2nd century CE):
- Most celebrated Chola king.
- Defeated a coalition of Chera, Pandya, and 11 Velir chieftains at the Battle of Venni.
- Initiated:
- Reclamation of forest land for cultivation.
- Construction of 160 km long embankment along the Kaveri River.
- Founding of Puhar as a major city.
🚢 Navy and Decline:
- Cholas maintained a strong navy, critical for coastal dominance and trade.
- After Karikalan:
- Decline set in due to attacks by Pallavas from the north.
- By 4th–9th centuries CE, the Cholas were reduced to minor players, only to resurge later in the Imperial Chola phase (10th–13th centuries).
🏹 The Cheras
🧭 Territory & Capital:
- Ruled over central and northern Kerala and Kongu region (western Tamil Nadu).
- Capital was Karur / Vanji.
- Port towns: Muchiri (Musiri) and Tondi.
🌍 Roman Trade & Influence:
- Chera ports were key centers in Indo-Roman trade.
- Muziris (identified with Cranganore) had Roman regiments stationed for trade protection.
- Romans even built a temple to Augustus in Chera territory.
⚔️ Political History:
- Fought repeatedly with Cholas and Pandyas.
- Killed Karikala’s father, but also suffered defeats.
- Temporary matrimonial alliances with Cholas to maintain peace.
- At one point, allied with Pandyas against Cholas — defeated again.
⚔️ Famous Ruler: Senguttuvan (Red Chera)
- Hero of Silappadikaram, praised for:
- Suppressing piracy at port towns like Musiri.
- North Indian expedition and supposed crossing of the Ganga (not confirmed by Sangam poems).
- Installation of Pattini (Kannagi) cult, linked to female chastity and justice.
🪙 Coinage & Inscriptions:
- Issued copper and lead coins with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, modeled on Roman coins.
- Pugalur inscription (1st century CE): Mentions three generations of Chera kings.
- Pathitrupathu: Describes eight Chera kings, their conquests and fame.
📉 Decline:
- After 2nd century CE, Chera history becomes obscure.
- The dynasty re-emerged only in the 8th century CE.
📚 Conclusion
The Three Early Kingdoms of South India — Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas — laid the foundation for a rich and diverse political culture in Tamilakam. Despite frequent warfare, they shared several common features:
- Maritime trade with the Roman world
- Agricultural expansion through iron technology
- Urban development and capital-port duality
- Deep involvement in Sangam literature and Tamil identity
Their rise and decline set the stage for new dynasties like the Pallavas, Kalabhras, and later the Imperial Cholas, who would further shape the course of South Indian history.