Indus Valley Civilisation

After understanding what a civilisation is, let’s now dive into one of the earliest and most fascinating civilisations of the ancient world—the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC).

Timeframe and Region

• The Indus Valley Civilisation flourished between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, which today includes parts of Pakistan and western India.
• This civilisation is known for its:
  • Well-planned cities
  • Massive brick structures
  • Art of writing (script still undeciphered)
  • Standardised weights and measures
  • Advanced bronze tools
  • Painted red pottery with black designs

In short, this was a technologically and culturally sophisticated urban society that emerged thousands of years ago—long before many other parts of the world developed cities.

What’s in a Name? Evolution of Terminology

Initially, the civilisation was called the Indus Valley Civilisation because most early discoveries were along the Indus River.

But with time, more sites were found, far beyond the Indus Valley—spreading towards the Ghaggar-Hakra region, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and even the Yamuna plains. So now, scholars refer to it by multiple names:

1. Harappan Civilisation – Named after Harappa, the first site excavated in 1921 (in present-day Pakistan).
   ➤ This is the most commonly used term today.
2. Indus-Sarasvati or Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilisation – Because many sites are found between the Indus and the now dried-up Sarasvati (Ghaggar-Hakra) river systems.

📝 Note: In archaeology, it is a common practice to name a culture based on its first excavated site.

Phases of Harappan Civilisation

The civilisation didn’t emerge all at once. It evolved gradually through three key stages:

Phase	Period	Key Features
Early Harappan	6000 BCE – 2600 BCE	Rural life, agriculture, village settlements, pottery
Mature Harappan	2600 BCE – 1900 BCE	Full urbanisation, cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa
Late Harappan	1900 BCE – 1300 BCE	Decline of cities, ruralisation, cultural transformations

• When people say Harappan Civilisation, they mostly refer to the Mature Urban Phase.
• Dholavira and Rakhigarhi are two rare sites where all three phases have been found.

Key Mature Harappan Urban Centres

Let’s list some of the important urban sites:

• Mohenjodaro
• Harappa
• Kalibangan
• Banawali
• Chanhudaro
• Lothal

All these were planned cities with:

• Grid-like streets
• Drainage systems
• Public granaries and warehouses
• Residential and craft areas

Mehrgarh: The Neolithic Foundation

Before Harappa, there was Mehrgarh.

• Located in Baluchistan (Pakistan), Mehrgarh dates from 7000 BCE to 2600 BCE.
• It represents a Neolithic to Chalcolithic culture.
• Though abandoned before the rise of the urban Harappan cities, Mehrgarh laid the foundation for Harappan civilisation.

Let’s look at what Mehrgarh people were doing:

• Practising agriculture and animal domestication
• Living in mud-brick houses
• Using stone tools and later copper tools
• Producing painted pottery
• Building larger villages and houses

📌 Settlements similar to Mehrgarh have also been found at:

• Mundigak in Afghanistan
• Ghaggar-Hakra basin (Cholistan desert region)

These were not isolated communities. There was exchange of goods and some craft specialisation, setting the stage for urban life.

Early Harappan Cultures: The Rural Roots

Before the grand cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro emerged, the region witnessed several archaeological cultures, broadly called the Early Harappan Cultures.

Their features:

• Rural lifestyle
• Agriculture and pastoralism
• Handmade pottery
• Small-scale crafts
• No large buildings

These rural cultures slowly evolved into the urban Harappan civilisation.

Important Early Harappan Sites

• Amri, Kot Diji, Rehman Dheri, Kalibangan, Banawali, Harappa, Kunal
• Even faraway sites like Mundigak (Afghanistan) and Damb Sadaat (Baluchistan) played a role.

Classification of Early Harappan Cultures by Pottery

Archaeologists have divided the Early Harappan cultures into four ceramic groups based on pottery styles:

Culture Name	Key Sites & Regions
Kot Diji	NWFP, Punjab (Pakistan), Northern Sindh
Sothi-Siswal	Rajasthan and Haryana (e.g., Sothi and Siswal in Hisar)
Amri-Nal	Sindh and Baluchistan (Amri and Nal)
Damb Sadaat	Central Baluchistan

These cultures laid the cultural and material foundations of the mature Harappan society.

Notable Archaeologist: Amalananda Ghosh

• Served as Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (1953–1968)
• One of the first to highlight the links between pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures
• Played a crucial role in Indian archaeology after independence

Bhirrana: The Oldest Harappan Site

• According to a 2014 ASI report, Bhirrana in Haryana dates back to 7500–6200 BCE.
• It is currently considered the oldest Harappan site based on evidence of:
  • Early farming
  • Pottery
  • Mud structures
  • Cultural continuity

This discovery pushes back the timeline of Harappan roots to a much earlier period than previously thought.

Geographical Extent and Harappan Settlements: The Vast Canvas of IVC

By now, we’ve understood that the Harappan Civilisation was not just ancient—it was expansive and advanced. Let us now explore its geographical reach, urban centres, and the importance of rivers in shaping this ancient civilisation.

🗺️ How Vast Was the Harappan Civilisation?

• Among all Bronze Age Civilisations, the Indus Valley Civilisation was the most widespread, both in population and territorial extent.
• Over 2,000 sites have been identified so far, covering an area of 1.5 million square kilometres.
• These sites span across:
  1. Western India – States like Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
  2. Pakistan – Provinces like Sindh, Punjab, and Baluchistan.
  3. Afghanistan – A few sites like Shortughai.

🧭 Northernmost Site: Shortughai, near Afghanistan’s border with Tajikistan
🧭 Southernmost Site: Daimabad, in Maharashtra
🧭 Westernmost Site: Sutkagendor, on the Makran coast of Baluchistan
🧭 Easternmost Site: Alamgirpur, in western Uttar Pradesh

🏙️ Major Cities vs. Other Settlements

Out of these thousands of sites, five major urban centres stand out:

Cities	Country	Remarks
Mohenjodaro	Pakistan	Largest site in Sindh (500 ha)
Harappa	Pakistan	First discovered (150 ha)
Ganweriwala	Pakistan	Near Saraswati basin
Rakhigarhi	India	Largest Harappan city (550 ha)
Dholavira	India	Famous for water management

Besides cities, there were regional centres, villages, ports (like Lothal), and manufacturing hubs (like Chanhudaro).

🌊 Why Were Most Settlements Near Rivers?

The Harappan people were intelligent planners. They chose riverbanks as the site for settlements for:

• Water supply
• Agricultural fertility
• Trade and transport
• Resource accessibility

Most sites are located between the Indus and the Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) river systems.

📌 Over two-thirds of Harappan sites lie in the Saraswati basin, prompting scholars to call this the Indus-Saraswati Civilisation.

🏞️ Important Saraswati Basin Sites (Mostly in India)

City	Modern Location	Special Facts
Rakhigarhi	Hisar, Haryana	Largest Harappan city (550 ha), DNA studies by Vasant Shinde in 2013
Kalibangan	Rajasthan	Fire altars, granary, excavated by B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar in 1960
Banawali	Haryana	Close to both Early and Mature phases
Bhirrana	Haryana	Oldest Harappan site (7500–6200 BCE)
Farmana	Haryana	Burial sites with grave goods

🔍 The Lost River Saraswati: Geography and Legacy

The Saraswati River, often mentioned in the Rig Veda, is not a myth—it was real.

• Originated in the Himalayas, flowed between the Indus and Ganga rivers, passed through Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and emptied into the Gulf of Kachchh.
• Likely dried up around 1900 BCE, possibly contributing to Harappan decline.
• Today, it survives seasonally as:
  • Ghaggar in India
  • Hakra in Pakistan

🕉️ Saraswati in the Rig Veda

• Mentioned more than 80 times—even more than the Ganga!
• Revered both as a river and a goddess.
• Described as flowing “from the mountain to the sea”, highlighting her vast course.

🧭 Key Sites by Region – A Glance

To make your revision easier, here’s a region-wise breakdown of important Harappan sites, their river associations, and findings:

🇮🇳 India

State	Site	River	Key Findings
Jammu	Manda	Chenab	Northernmost site
Punjab	Ropar	Satluj	Harappan remains with post-Harappan layer
Haryana	Banawali	Saraswati	Planned layout
	Rakhigarhi	Saraswati	Largest site, DNA study (2013)
	Bhirrana	Saraswati	Oldest site
	Mitathal, Balu, Bhagwanpura	–
UP	Alamgirpur	Yamuna	Easternmost site, cotton impression
	Hulas	–	Rural economy
Rajasthan	Kalibangan	Saraswati	Fire altars, ploughed field
Gujarat	Dholavira (50 ha)	Luni	Reservoirs, inscriptions, stadium, chessboard layout
	Lothal	Bhogava	Dockyard, warehouse, rice husk, fire altar
	Surkotada, Rangpur, Padri, Nageshwar, Kuntasi, Prabhas Patan (Somnath), Bhagatrav, Rojdi	–

                            

🇵🇰 Pakistan

Province	Site	River	Key Finds
Punjab	Harappa (150 ha)	Ravi	Granaries, male torso, carts, first site (1921)
Sindh	Mohenjodaro	Indus	Great Bath, Dancing Girl, Priest-King, Pashupati Seal, cotton, skeletons, Granary, Bronze figure of Bull
	Chanhudaro	Indus	Bead-making, crafts
	Kot Diji, Amri	Indus	Pre-Harappan culture layers
Baluchistan	Sutkagendor, Balakot	Coastal/Indus	Maritime trade, fortification
KPK	Rehman Dheri, Gumpla	–	Pre-urban planning evidence

🇦🇫 Afghanistan

Site	Region	Highlights
Shortughai	North Afghanistan	Canal remains, trade with Harappan core

🧠 Conclusion

• The Harappan Civilisation was not just about Mohenjodaro and Harappa. It was a continental civilisation with:
  • Wide spatial spread
  • Numerous urban and rural centres
  • River-centric planning
• The importance of Saraswati, both geographically and spiritually, shows how rivers shaped early Indian history.
• Today, as new sites like Bhirrana and Rakhigarhi are excavated and analysed with modern techniques like archaeogenetics, our understanding of this civilisation continues to grow deeper