Other Heterodox Ideas: The Forgotten Rivals of Buddhism and Jainism

When we think of the 6th century BCE, we usually focus on Buddhism and Jainism. However, this intellectual revolution in ancient India was far more diverse. Several non-Vedic, heterodox (nāstika) movements flourished, reflecting rising dissatisfaction with Vedic rituals, priestly monopoly, and metaphysical dogmas.

📌 Historical Setting

• These beliefs emerged as part of the broader Śramaṇa tradition — a counter-cultural movement of wandering ascetics who:
  • Rejected Vedas and ritualism
  • Questioned caste-based social order
  • Sought liberation through knowledge, discipline, or personal effort

🔺 The Six Heretical Teachers (Contemporaries of Buddha)

Mentioned in the Samannaphala Sutta (Digha Nikaya), these six thinkers held a wide range of beliefs, from extreme determinism to complete scepticism. They are foundational for understanding the pluralistic philosophical climate of the time.

Teacher	Core Philosophy	School	Key Belief
1. Nigantha Nataputta	Jainism	Jain	Believed in karma, soul, extreme asceticism
2. Purana Kassapa	Akriyavada	–	No effect of actions—no sin, no virtue
3. Makkhali Goshala	Ajivika	Determinism (Niyati)	Fate rules all; karma/effort meaningless
4. Ajita Kesakambala	Materialism	Lokayata	No soul, no rebirth, no afterlife — pure hedonism
5. Pakudha Kachchayana	Atomism	–	Seven eternal substances; no ethical link in actions
6. Sanjaya Belatthiputta	Agnosticism	–	Refused to answer any metaphysical questions

🔎 Deep Dive into the Six Thinkers

1. Purana Kassapa – Doctrine of Non-action (Akriyavada)

• Argued that human actions have no moral consequences.
• Example: Killing or stealing does not lead to sin, nor does charity lead to merit.
• Critique: Dismissed by both Buddha and Mahavira as morally dangerous.

2. Makkhali Goshala – Ajivika Sect

• Preached absolute determinism – everything is fixed by Niyati (fate).
• Human effort is futile; life unfolds by cosmic necessity.
• Ajivikas practiced asceticism but rejected free will.
• Ashoka patronised Ajivikas for much of his life before turning to Buddhism.

🏛️ Ajivika Heritage:

• Lomas Rishi Cave (Barabar Hills, Bihar):
  • Built by Ashoka.
  • Oldest surviving rock-cut cave in India.
  • Noted for its arched chaitya entrance and elephant friezes.

3. Ajita Kesakambala – Forerunner of Charvaka (Lokayata)

• Denied soul, rebirth, afterlife, heaven/hell, and rituals.
• Viewed Vedic priests as manipulators, exploiting people through rituals.
• Advocated materialism and pleasure as the ultimate goal.

🔥 Charvaka / Lokayata School

• Founded by Brihaspati (traditionally).
• Epistemology: Accepted only direct perception (pratyaksha) as a valid source of knowledge.
• Rejects inference, testimony, or scriptural authority.
• Core belief: “Eat, drink, and be merry — there is no afterlife.”

4. Pakudha Kachchayana – Atomistic Eternalism

• Proposed that the universe is composed of seven eternal elements:
  1. Earth
  2. Water
  3. Fire
  4. Air
  5. Pleasure
  6. Pain
  7. Soul
• Ethical implication: No real agent of action; events are recombinations of elements.

5. Sanjaya Belatthiputta – Agnosticism

• Refused to give any metaphysical opinion.
• Famous for his evasive replies:

“I do not say it is so. I do not say it is not so. I do not say it is both or neither.”

• Inspired the early skeptical school of thought.

6. Nigantha Nataputta – Vardhamana Mahavira

• The only one among the six whose philosophy grew into a major religion — Jainism.
• Represented the most rigorous ethical system based on Ahimsa, self-discipline, and karma purification.

🧘‍♂️ The Shramana Tradition: A Philosophical Renaissance

Feature	Description
Meaning	“Shramana” = to strive or one who labours (spiritually)
Core Values	Renunciation, moral discipline, rejection of priestly authority
Schools	Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas, Charvakas, Ajñana (skeptics)
Impact	Broke the monopoly of Vedic Brahmanism and laid foundations for rational, ethical, and individualist paths in Indian spirituality

📝 Summary Pointers

• Not all ancient Indian philosophies were spiritual — some were radically materialist or skeptical.
• The Ajivika sect believed in fate, the Charvakas in pleasure, and the Ajñanas in doubt.
• They reflect India’s rich pluralism — where even atheism and agnosticism had a voice 2500 years ago.