North Indian Kingdoms (Post-Gupta Era): Politics, Society & Culture
Let us try to reconstruct the socio-political and cultural landscape of northern India after the fall of the Gupta Empire—roughly from the 6th to the 12th century CE. This was a time of political fragmentation, but also significant cultural activity, regional identity formation, and dynamic economic patterns.
Administration: From Centralised Empires to Feudal Decentralisation
After the Guptas, North India witnessed a drastic shift from a centralised imperial model to a decentralised feudal setup. Let’s understand this.
- Feudalism here refers to a system where local rulers or chieftains held power, often in return for military service, and the central authority became symbolic or weak.
- The best example of this is the Gurjara-Pratiharas in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
- They not only governed fragmented territories but also undertook water conservation projects—like tanks and stepwells—especially to cultivate arid zones.
➤ Military Structure: Large standing armies were maintained, mainly comprising foot soldiers, cavalry (horsemen), and elephants—a traditional Indian military triad.
Arab and Persian sources, especially those talking about Dharmapala of the Pala dynasty, mention such vast armies.
Society: Hierarchy, Orthodoxy, and Role of Castes
This period saw a rigid social structure—what sociologists may call stratification.
- Brahmanical supremacy was reinforced through land grants (agraharas) and involvement in administration.
- Sati (widow immolation) became increasingly prevalent, especially among Rajput communities, as a symbol of honour and purity.
- Kayasthas, originally a record-keeping class, emerged as powerful bureaucrats—a classic case of how occupation influenced caste mobility.
Economy and Trade: Rise, Decline, and Revival
🟢 Economic Centres:
Cities like Thanesar, Kannauj, and Varanasi flourished due to their cultural prestige and commercial vitality.
🌍 International Trade:
- India retained maritime trade links with:
- China
- Southeast Asia
- West Asia and the Arab world
Arab merchants became key players in maritime commerce.
Western Indian traders—many of them Jains—used their wealth to fund temples at Mount Abu, Girnar, etc.
🔻Decline of Trade (7th–10th Century)
- Why did trade decline?
- Collapse of Roman and Sassanid empires disrupted the long-distance commercial networks.
- Influx of gold and silver reduced → Minting of gold coins declined.
- Even Dharamshastra texts from this period discouraged foreign sea travel, labelling it “polluting”.
- But this was not uniformly followed. Indian merchants, physicians, and scholars travelled to Baghdad and beyond.
These taboos were likely aimed at Brahmins—to preserve orthodoxy and resist Islamic/ Buddhist influences.
🔼 Revival of Trade: Return of Economic Momentum
With the emergence of a powerful Arab Empire:
- Trade revived, especially in:
- Malwa
- Gujarat
- Bengal
India became a link between China and West Asia, particularly due to seasonal monsoon winds, which required ships to halt at Indian ports for months.
- Ports like Tamralipti (Bengal) became major commercial hubs.
- India exported:
- Sandalwood, camphor, ivory, textiles, and spices
- Imported:
- Silk and porcelain from China
- Re-exported African ivory and West Asian glassware
💱 Medieval Banking and Financial Instruments: Rise of Hundis
- With increased trade, the need for credit and secure money transfer mechanisms emerged.
- Enter the Hundi – a traditional Indian bill of exchange.
➤ Two Types of Hundis:
| Type | Nature |
| Darshani Hundi | Payable on sight (on demand) |
| Miyadi Hundi | Payable after a fixed time |
➤ Two Functions:
- Money Transfer: Avoided the risk of carrying cash over long distances.
- Credit Instrument: Used for borrowing capital.
Moneylenders like sarrafs, mahajans, and sahukars played an active role. This resembles modern-day banking and shows the financial sophistication of pre-modern India.
🛕 Religion: Resurgence, Coexistence, and Patronage
- Hinduism became the dominant religion again, especially the Bhakti cults of Vishnu, Shiva, and later Krishna.
- Texts like Bhagavata Purana and Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda popularised the Radha-Krishna devotional tradition.
- Buddhism declined but was still patronised by the Palas, who supported:
- Nalanda, Vikramshila, and Somapura Mahavihara
- Attracted scholars from China, Tibet, Southeast Asia
- Jainism became more regionally focused—especially in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Karnataka—and continued to be associated with merchant communities.
📚 Literature: The Last Glorious Age of Sanskrit
Let’s meet some of the major literary figures of this era:
1. Bhavabhuti (8th Century)
- Associated with Yashovarman of Kannauj
- Known for karuna rasa (pathos) in his drama.
- Uttararamacharita
- Malati-Madhava
2. Kshemendra (Kashmir, 11th Century)
- A Shaiva-turned-Vaishnava
- Versatile—wrote on philosophy, satire, drama
- Works include:
- Dasavataracharita
- Kalavilasa
- Desopadesa, Samayamatrika
3. Jayadeva (12th Century)
- Wrote Gita Govinda — foundational to Bhakti poetry
- Celebrates Radha-Krishna divine love
4. Hemachandra (Jain Acharya, Gujarat)
- Wrote on grammar, logic, science
- Important works:
- Trishashti Shalaka Purusha-charitra
- Parisishta Parvan
- Kumarapalacharita (biography + grammar)
5. Kalhana (Kashmir, 12th Century)
- Authored Rajatarangini – first historical chronicle in Sanskrit
- Covers Kashmir’s political and cultural history
- Unique for its use of historical methodology, not just mythology
🧠 Summary Points for UPSC Mains and Prelims
| Theme | Significance |
| Political Fragmentation | Rise of feudal polity, emergence of regional kingdoms |
| Social Rigidification | Caste system, Sati, Kayasthas’ rise |
| Trade Decline & Revival | Due to geo-political shifts → Later revived via Arab & Chinese networks |
| Financial Instruments | Use of Hundi shows proto-banking |
| Religious Transition | Bhakti movements, decline of Buddhism, Jain merchant elite |
| Cultural Flourish | Sanskrit literature peaks, development of regional literary traditions begins |