Stampede
Imagine a dense crowd suddenly starting to move or panic — people push, stumble, and fall, and before anyone can help, the force of human bodies becomes uncontrollable.
That uncontrollable surge of human movement leading to crushing or trampling is called a stampede.
👉 Definition:
A stampede occurs when a crowd surges beyond the capacity of a space, moving in the same direction simultaneously. People collide, fall, and pile up — leading to injuries or deaths due to compressive asphyxia (inability to breathe because of external pressure).
🧠 Key idea: When crowd density crosses 5–6 persons per square meter, individual control is lost — movement becomes governed by involuntary physical forces rather than conscious decisions.
🌍 Global and Indian Context
Stampedes are universal but their causes differ by region:
- In India and developing countries → mostly at religious gatherings (Kumbh Melas, temple events, satsangs).
- In developed countries → often at concerts, stadiums, or nightclubs.
📊 Data Insight:
More than 1,477 deaths have occurred in India since 2000 in over 50 mass-gathering incidents — making India one of the global hotspots for crowd-related deaths.
Other hotspots: Saudi Arabia (Hajj), West Africa, South Korea (Itaewon 2022).
🕯️ Major Incidents (India and Global)
🇮🇳 India
- Karur, Tamil Nadu (Sept 2025): Around 40 people were killed and several injured in a crowd crush during actor-turned-politician Vijay’s political rally due to overcapacity and inadequate crowd control arrangements.
- Hathras, Uttar Pradesh (July 2024):
121 deaths, mostly women, during a Satsang.
Cause: crowd surge after preacher’s car left; rain and slippery ground added chaos. - Kumbh Mela, 1954 (Allahabad/Prayagraj):
Over 800 deaths — remains the deadliest crowd disaster in Indian history.
🌐 Global
- Seoul, South Korea (2022): 159 killed during Halloween celebrations — lack of police control and narrow lanes caused crushing.
- Chongqing, China (1941): 4,000 deaths during WWII air raid panic — world’s worst recorded crowd disaster.
⚙️ Causes of Stampedes
Stampedes rarely have one single cause — they are a result of structural, administrative, and behavioural failures acting together.
| Category | Description | Example |
| Structural | Collapse of structures or narrow spaces causing bottlenecks | Morbi Bridge Collapse (2022) |
| Fire/Electricity Hazards | Fire, electrical short circuits, or lack of extinguishers causing panic | Uphaar Cinema Fire (1997) |
| Administrative/Managerial | Underestimating crowd size, insufficient exits, locked gates, poor staffing | Vaishno Devi, 2022 |
| Crowd Behaviour | Sudden rushes, last-minute platform change, emotional excitement | Kumbh Mela, 1954 |
| Security Failures | Use of teargas, weapon brandishing, or mismanagement by police | Itaewon, Seoul, 2022 |
| Coordination Gaps | Lack of clarity among agencies, poor communication, absence of mock drills | Common in most Indian incidents |
| Other Reasons | Overcapacity, poor event layout, no signage, lack of ventilation | Many fairs, rallies, and festivals |
⚰️ Impact of a Stampede
While it may appear as chaos and falling bodies, the real cause of death in most stampedes is compressive asphyxia.
🫁 What Happens Physiologically:
- When people are tightly packed, chest and diaphragm movement is restricted.
- Air cannot enter or exit the lungs → oxygen deprivation → carbon dioxide buildup.
- Within minutes, this causes organ failure and brain death.
- Women and children are often more vulnerable due to smaller physical frames.
So, contrary to popular belief — people don’t die from being trampled, they die because they can’t breathe under pressure.
👥 Crowd Management: Prevention is the Key
A stampede is not an “accident” — it’s a failure of planning and governance.
The goal of crowd management is to prevent the situation from ever becoming uncontrollable.
A. NIDM’s Guidelines: Crowd Management Strategies
As per National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), crowd control must be multi-dimensional — combining planning, psychology, and coordination.
1. Capacity Planning
- Assess crowd size based on venue capacity, geography, and expected turnout.
- Design multiple entry and exit routes, with clear signage and separate pathways for vulnerable groups (children, elderly, women).
- Create staging points and queue complexes to regulate entry flow.
2. Infrastructure
- Build strong, well-marked barricades and avoid bottlenecks.
- Ensure fire safety, emergency lighting, and PA systems for announcements.
3. Understanding Crowd Behaviour
- Crowds behave emotionally and imitate others.
- Identify trouble-creating individuals early using CCTV and crowd monitors.
- Prefer community-based crowd control over forceful policing.
4. Crowd Control Measures
- Maintain high visibility of crowd-control staff.
- Involve organizers, temple trusts, law enforcement, NGOs, and local leaders.
- Deploy trained volunteers familiar with local culture and crowd behavior.
5. Risk Analysis and Preparedness
- Conduct mock drills before every large event.
- Identify gaps in emergency exits, medical response, and crowd flow.
6. Other Measures
- Timely communication among all stakeholders.
- CCTV monitoring, fire safety compliance, and emergency medical units on-site.
- Encourage use of public transport to minimize congestion.
B. FIST Model (by Fruin) — Understanding Crowd Dynamics
To scientifically manage crowds, Fruin proposed the FIST model, which stands for:
| Letter | Meaning | Explanation |
| F – Force | Pressure or pushing within the crowd | Leads to crush injuries |
| I – Information | What information the crowd acts upon | Rumors or unclear instructions can trigger panic |
| S – Space | Available area for people to move | Narrow or blocked exits worsen situation |
| T – Time | Duration of crowd buildup or congestion | Longer waiting time = rising frustration and heat buildup |
➡️ Application:
Event organizers must evaluate all four elements — Force, Information, Space, and Time — while designing crowd safety and evacuation plans.
🏛️ Governance Mechanism in India
Since crowd disasters are local events, primary responsibility lies with local administration and event organizers, supported by:
- State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
- National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
- Police and Fire Services
- Health and Medical departments
Coordination, communication, and mock drills are key to reducing fatalities.
🌐 Preventive Tips for Individuals (As per NIDM)
- Dress appropriately — avoid loose clothing; anticipate weather changes.
- Note all exits mentally on arrival.
- Attend with a friend and stay together.
- Hold railings for balance on stairs or slopes.
- Wear bright clothes to stay visible in crowds.
These may sound simple, but they can save lives during a crowd surge.
✍️ UPSC Answer Writing Tip
Conclude your answer with a governance perspective:
“Crowd disasters are not failures of crowds, but failures of planning. Adopting a behavioural-science-based approach, institutional coordination, and citizen awareness — as emphasized by NIDM — can transform mass gatherings from potential disasters into safe, well-managed events of collective harmony.”
