Buddhism

Origin and Historical Background

Buddhism originated in the 6th century BCE as a reformist spiritual movement in ancient India. It emerged during a period of intense intellectual and social transformation when many thinkers were questioning ritualistic practices and the authority of the Vedas. The religion was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One).

Buddhism gradually spread across India and beyond, receiving strong royal patronage, particularly during the Mauryan Empire under Emperor Ashoka (c. 268–232 BCE), who played a decisive role in spreading Buddhist teachings across Asia.

Life of Gautama Buddha

Aspect	Details
Founder	Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)
Birth	563 BCE at Lumbini (present-day Nepal). The Rummindei Pillar inscription of Ashoka marks this birthplace.
Parents	Father – Shuddhodhana (chief of the Shakya clan); Mother – Maya
Foster Mother	Gautami (Mahaprajapati Gautami)
Wife	Yasodhara
Son	Rahula
Cousin	Devadatta

Buddha was born into a royal family and lived a life of luxury. However, exposure to human suffering profoundly changed his outlook.

The Four Sights

At the age of 29, Siddhartha witnessed four sights that deeply influenced his spiritual journey.

Sight	Meaning / Realisation
Old man	Ageing is inevitable
Sick person	Illness is part of human existence
Corpse	Death is unavoidable
Ascetic	Spiritual discipline may offer liberation

These experiences convinced him that human life is filled with suffering and that there must be a way to overcome it.

Mahabhinishkramana (Great Renunciation)

At the age of 29, Siddhartha renounced his royal life and left his palace in search of spiritual truth.
This event is known as Mahabhinishkramana, meaning “The Great Departure”.

He adopted the life of an ascetic, practising meditation and austerities in pursuit of enlightenment.

Enlightenment (Bodhi)

Aspect	Details
Age	35 years
Place	Bodh Gaya (Bihar)
Tree	Pipal tree (Bodhi tree)
River nearby	Niranjana (Lilajan)

After deep meditation, Siddhartha attained Enlightenment (Bodhi) and became known as Buddha or Tathagata (“the one who has attained the Truth”).

First Sermon – Dhammacakkappavattana

After enlightenment, Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This sermon is called Dhammacakkappavattana, meaning “Turning the Wheel of Dharma.” He then travelled across northern India preaching for about 45 years.

Death (Mahaparinirvana)

Aspect	Details
Place	Kusinagar (Uttar Pradesh)
Circumstance	Passed away under a Sal tree
Last Words	“Subject to decay are all component things. Strive diligently to work out your own salvation.”

The passing of Buddha is known as Mahaparinirvana.

Representation and Symbols of Buddha

Iconographic Representation

In Buddhist art, Buddha is generally depicted as:

• Sitting in meditation posture (Dhyanasana)
• Right hand touching the earth (Bhumisparsha Mudra – calling the earth to witness)
• Holding a begging bowl
• Minimal decoration and simple robes
• Blue hair curls and a halo around the head

He is also known as Buddha Shakyamuni.

Symbols of the Five Major Events

Event	Symbol
Birth	Lotus and Bull
Great Renunciation	Horse
Enlightenment (Nirvana)	Bodhi Tree
First Sermon	Wheel (Dharmachakra)
Parinirvana (Death)	Stupa

These symbols were widely used in early Buddhist art before Buddha’s human image was depicted.

Buddhist Sacred Texts

Primary Canon

The core scriptures of Buddhism are known as the Tripitaka (Pali Canon).

Pitaka	Meaning	Content
Sutta Pitaka	Discourses	Teachings and sermons of Buddha
Vinaya Pitaka	Discipline	Rules governing monastic life
Abhidhamma Pitaka	Philosophy	Philosophical and psychological analysis

Other Buddhist Texts

Tradition	Important Texts
Mahayana Buddhism	Mahayana Sutras
Vajrayana Buddhism	Texts like the Tibetan Book of the Dead

Core Beliefs of Buddhism

The philosophical foundation of Buddhism revolves around Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the concept of Nirvana.

Four Noble Truths

Truth	Explanation
Dukkha	Life involves suffering (birth, illness, ageing, death)
Samudaya	Cause of suffering is desire (Tanha)
Nirodha	Suffering can end by eliminating desire
Magga	The path to end suffering is the Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path is divided into three broader categories.

Category	Path	Meaning
Wisdom (Prajna)	Right View	Understanding the Four Noble Truths
	Right Intention	Developing renunciation, goodwill, harmlessness
Ethical Conduct (Sila)	Right Speech	Truthful and kind speech
	Right Action	Moral behaviour
	Right Livelihood	Ethical means of earning
Mental Discipline (Samadhi)	Right Effort	Cultivating positive mental states
	Right Mindfulness	Awareness of thoughts and actions
	Right Concentration	Deep meditation

Nirvana

Nirvana literally means “blowing out” or extinguishing the flame of desire.

It represents:

• Freedom from dukkha (suffering)
• Liberation from the cycle of samsara (birth and rebirth)
• The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice

Three Jewels (Triratna)

The foundation of Buddhist faith is the Three Jewels.

Jewel	Meaning
Buddha	The Enlightened Teacher
Dharma	Teachings of Buddha
Sangha	Monastic community

A person becomes a Buddhist by reciting:

“I take refuge in the Buddha,
I take refuge in the Dharma,
I take refuge in the Sangha.”

Nature of Buddhism

Feature	Explanation
Non-theistic religion	Focuses on spiritual development rather than worship of a creator god
Ethical and practical philosophy	Emphasises morality, meditation, and wisdom
Universal approach	Applicable to all people irrespective of caste or class

Sangha (Monastic Community)

The Sangha plays a central role in preserving Buddhist teachings.

Key features:

• Consists of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis)
• Responsible for teaching and spreading Dharma
• Maintains discipline through Vinaya rules
• Women were admitted to the Sangha after Ananda requested Buddha.

Demography of Buddhism in India

Aspect	Details
Population share	Around 0.7% of India’s population
Major region	Maharashtra (influenced by the movement of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar)
Other regions	Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh

Schisms in Buddhism

After the death of Gautama Buddha, the Buddhist community gradually fragmented into multiple sects due to differences in interpretation of teachings, monastic discipline, and philosophical views. Over time, these divisions produced several schools of Buddhism.

Although Buddhist texts mention “Eighteen Schools of Buddhism”, three major traditions eventually emerged as the most influential:

• Theravada
• Mahayana
• Vajrayana

Early Division of Buddhism

The first major schism occurred in the 4th century BCE during the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.

Sect	Key Characteristics	Historical Importance
Sthaviravadins	Emphasised strict discipline and simple philosophical interpretation of Buddha’s teachings	Later evolved into Theravada Buddhism
Mahasanghikas	Held that Buddhas and Bodhisattvas possessed transcendental and supernatural qualities	Became the precursor to Mahayana Buddhism

This division reflected a deeper ideological difference:

• Sthaviravadins → Conservative interpretation of Buddha’s teachings
• Mahasanghikas → More liberal and philosophical interpretation

Second Major Schism

The next significant division occurred during the Fourth Buddhist Council, held in Kashmir under the patronage of Kanishka (Kushan ruler).

This council led to the development of two broad traditions:

• Hinayana
• Mahayana

Later, another stream called Vajrayana emerged around the 8th century CE.

Main Schools of Buddhism

Although many sects existed historically, the following three major schools dominate Buddhism today.

School	Meaning	Historical Origin
Theravada	“Doctrine of the Elders”	Derived from Sthaviravadins
Mahayana	“Great Vehicle”	Developed from Mahasanghika traditions
Vajrayana	“Diamond/Thunderbolt Vehicle”	Emerged from Mahayana in Tibet

Theravada Buddhism (School of the Elders)

Theravada is considered the oldest surviving Buddhist tradition.

Key Features

• Originated from the Sthaviravadins
• Based on teachings preserved in the Pali Canon
• Pali is the sacred language
• Maintains a conservative interpretation of Buddha’s teachings
• Rejects later Mahayana sutras

Philosophical Outlook

Aspect	Explanation
View of Buddha	Buddha is a great teacher, not a divine being
Spiritual Goal	Arhatship (individual enlightenment)
Worship	Does not emphasise idol worship, focuses on symbols
Focus	Personal liberation from suffering

Historical Spread

Theravada spread widely due to Emperor Ashoka’s missionary activities.

Region	Present-day Countries
South Asia	Sri Lanka
Southeast Asia	Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia

Theravada is sometimes called Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”), though this term was given by Mahayana followers and is not used by Theravadins themselves.

Mahayana Buddhism (The Great Vehicle)

Mahayana Buddhism emerged around the 1st century CE.

Its philosophical foundation was further developed by Nagarjuna (2nd century CE).

Core Beliefs

Concept	Explanation
Universal Buddha Nature	Every human has the potential to become a Buddha
Bodhisattva Ideal	Enlightened beings delay nirvana to help others
Sunyata (Emptiness)	All phenomena lack intrinsic, permanent existence

Thus, Mahayana emphasises collective salvation rather than individual liberation.

Six Paramitas (Perfections)

Bodhisattvas cultivate six virtues called Paramitas, which guide the path to enlightenment.

Paramita	Meaning
Dana	Generosity
Sila	Ethical conduct
Kshanti	Patience
Virya	Diligence
Dhyana	Meditation
Prajna	Wisdom

Features of Mahayana

• Introduction of celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
• Greater role of faith and devotion
• Acceptance of new scriptures in Sanskrit

Important Bodhisattvas include:

• Avalokiteshvara – Bodhisattva of compassion
• Amitabha – Buddha associated with the Pure Land tradition

Spread of Mahayana

Region	Countries
East Asia	China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam
Central Asia	Mongolia
Himalayan region	Tibet

Today, Mahayana is the most widely practiced form of Buddhism globally.

Vajrayana Buddhism (The Diamond Vehicle)

Vajrayana Buddhism developed around the 8th century CE, mainly in Tibet.

It is often considered a branch of Mahayana, but it incorporates unique tantric and mystical practices.

Meaning of Vajrayana

Term	Meaning
Vajra	Diamond or Thunderbolt (symbol of indestructible enlightenment)
Yana	Vehicle or path

Thus, Vajrayana means “the path to enlightenment that is powerful and indestructible.”

Core Beliefs

Feature	Explanation
Goal	Becoming a Bodhisattva
Method	Tantric and esoteric practices
Enlightenment	Achieved rapidly through specialised practices

Important Practices

• Mantras | Mandalas | Mudras | Tantric rituals | Meditation on deities

A strong guru–disciple relationship is essential in Vajrayana practice.

Development in Tibet

The teachings of Vajrayana were systematised by Atisha (11th century CE) in Tibet.
Therefore, Vajrayana is often called Tibetan Buddhism.

The Dalai Lama is regarded as the spiritual leader of Vajrayana Buddhism.

Comparative Features of the Three Buddhist Schools

Feature	Hinayana / Theravada	Mahayana	Vajrayana
Meaning	Lesser Vehicle	Greater Vehicle	Diamond / Thunderbolt Vehicle
Main Goal	Personal liberation	Universal salvation	Rapid enlightenment through esoteric practices
Ideal Figure	Arhat	Bodhisattva	Bodhisattva with tantric practices
View of Buddha	Teacher and enlightened human	Divine or cosmic being	Cosmic Buddha with mystical elements
Scriptures	Pali Canon (Tripitaka)	Sanskrit texts (Lotus Sutra, Prajnaparamita)	Tantric texts (Guhyasamaja Tantra, Kalachakra Tantra)
Practices	Meditation and discipline	Devotion and compassion	Mantras, mandalas, tantra
Spread	Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia	China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam	Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia

Important Terms in Buddhism

Key Spiritual Concepts

Term	Meaning	Significance
Arhat	A perfected individual who has attained nirvana	Represents personal liberation from the cycle of rebirth (important ideal in Theravada Buddhism)
Bodhisattva	One who seeks enlightenment (bodhi) and works for the welfare of all beings	Central ideal in Mahayana Buddhism
Nirvana	Ultimate liberation from suffering and rebirth	The highest goal of Buddhist practice

Conceptual Difference

Ideal	Meaning	School Emphasis
Arhat	Seeks personal enlightenment	Theravada
Bodhisattva	Delays nirvana to help others achieve liberation	Mahayana

Monastic and Lay Community Terms

Term	Meaning
Bhikshu (Bhikkhu)	Buddhist monk who lives according to monastic discipline
Bhikshuni	Female monk (nun)
Upasaka	Male lay follower of Buddhism
Upasika	Female lay follower

These groups together constitute the Buddhist community (Sangha).

Monastic Rituals and Practices

Term	Meaning	Importance
Vassa	Three-month annual retreat during the rainy season	Period devoted to meditation and spiritual practice
Pavarana	Ceremony held at the end of Vassa	Monks confess mistakes and invite constructive criticism

The Vassa retreat historically began because monks travelled constantly and could accidentally harm crops or insects during the rainy season.

Concept of Bodhisattvas

A Bodhisattva is an enlightened being who chooses not to enter final nirvana until all sentient beings achieve liberation.

Thus, Bodhisattvas embody compassion and altruism, which are central to Mahayana Buddhism.

Important Bodhisattvas in Buddhism

Bodhisattva	Domain / Symbolism	Key Features
Maitreya	Future Buddha	Expected to appear in the future age to revive Buddhism
Amitabha	Guardian of the West	Creator of the Pure Land (Sukhavati)
Avalokitesvara	Compassion	Patron deity of Tibet; represented with multiple heads and arms
Manjusri	Wisdom and knowledge	Associated with learning and literature
Vajrapani (Akshobhya)	Power and protection	Holds the Vajra (thunderbolt)
Padmasambhava	Founder of Tibetan Buddhism	Known as Guru Rinpoche
Tara	Female Bodhisattva of protection	Protects devotees from major dangers

Maitreya (Future Buddha)

• Considered the Buddha of the future
• Expected to appear in the fifth age (Kala) to revive Buddhist teachings
• Iconography:
  • Both feet touching the ground
  • Depicted in Dharmachakra Mudra (Turning the Wheel of Dharma)

Amitabha

• Known as the Buddha of Infinite Light
• Associated with the Pure Land tradition
• Created the heavenly realm Sukhavati, where devotees can attain enlightenment.

Avalokitesvara

• The Bodhisattva of Compassion
• Also called Padmapani (lotus bearer)
• Considered the patron saint of Tibet
• The Dalai Lama is believed to be his manifestation

Iconography → 11 heads, 1000 arms: Symbolises infinite compassion.

Manjusri

• Bodhisattva representing wisdom and intellect
• Worshipped by students and scholars

Iconography:

Symbol	Meaning
Sword	Cuts through ignorance
Book (Prajnaparamita)	Symbol of knowledge

Vajrapani (Akshobhya)

• Bodhisattva of power and protection
• One of the three main protective deities around Buddha along with Avalokitesvara and Manjusri

Iconography:

• Holds a Vajra (thunderbolt)
• Surrounded by flames
• Often depicted wearing a crown and tiger skin

Padmasambhava

• Name means “Lotus-born”
• Revered as Guru Rinpoche
• Credited with establishing Buddhism in Tibet

He played a crucial role in the development of Vajrayana (Tibetan Buddhism).

Tara

• One of the most revered female Bodhisattvas
• Represents protection and compassion

She protects people from eight major dangers in life:

1. Pride
2. Delusion
3. Anger
4. Jealousy
5. Wrong views
6. Greed
7. Desire
8. Doubt

Major Buddhist Pilgrimage Centres

Buddhism has left a profound imprint on the cultural and religious geography of India. Numerous monasteries, stupas, caves, and sacred sites associated with the life of the Buddha and later Buddhist traditions serve as important pilgrimage centres today.

These centres are distributed across many regions of India, particularly in the Himalayan belt, the Gangetic plains, and ancient Buddhist cultural zones.

State/Region	Pilgrimage Centre	Location	Significance / Key Details
Jammu & Kashmir (Ladakh)	Hemis Monastery	Near Leh	Largest monastery in Ladakh; famous for the Hemis Festival celebrating Guru Padmasambhava, a key figure in Tibetan Buddhism.
	Thiksey Monastery	Ladakh	Resembles the Potala Palace of Lhasa; houses a 49-foot statue of Maitreya Buddha and overlooks the Indus Valley.
Himachal Pradesh	Dharamshala (McLeod Ganj)	Kangra district	Residence of the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government-in-exile; Namgyal Monastery located here.
	Tabo Monastery	Spiti Valley	Founded in 996 CE; one of the oldest functioning monasteries; called the “Ajanta of the Himalayas” due to its murals and stucco images.
Uttarakhand	Mindrolling Monastery	Dehradun	One of the largest Buddhist learning centres in India; features a 60-metre statue of the Great Buddha.
Uttar Pradesh	Sarnath	Varanasi	Site where Buddha delivered his first sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana) after enlightenment; includes Dhamek Stupa and Ashoka Pillar remains.
	Kushinagar	Kushinagar district	Site of Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana and cremation; includes Mahaparinirvana Temple and Ramabhar Stupa.
Bihar	Bodh Gaya	Gaya district	Most important Buddhist pilgrimage site; Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree here.
	Nalanda	Nalanda district	Site of the ancient Nalanda University, a major centre of Buddhist learning; contains ruins of monasteries and stupas.
	Rajgir	Nalanda district	Associated with Buddha and Mahavira; includes Gridhrakuta (Vulture’s Peak) where Buddha delivered several sermons.
Sikkim	Rumtek Monastery	Near Gangtok	Largest monastery in Sikkim; seat of the Karmapa Lama of the Kagyu sect; famous for its golden stupa.
	Pemayangtse Monastery	Pelling	Major monastery of the Nyingma sect; known for views of Mount Kanchenjunga and intricate wooden carvings.
Arunachal Pradesh	Tawang Monastery	Tawang	Largest monastery in India and second largest in the world; centre of the Gelugpa sect; houses a giant Buddha statue.
	Bomdila Monastery	Bomdila	Important centre of Mahayana Buddhism, known for scenic surroundings and Tibetan-style architecture.
West Bengal	Zang Dhok Palri Phodang Monastery	Kalimpong	Famous for rare Buddhist scriptures and panoramic Himalayan views.
	Yiga Choeling Monastery (Ghoom Monastery)	Darjeeling	One of the oldest Tibetan monasteries in Darjeeling; houses a large Maitreya Buddha statue.
Odisha	Dhauli (Shanti Stupa)	Near Bhubaneswar	Associated with the Kalinga War, after which Ashoka embraced Buddhism; the Viswa Shanti Stupa symbolises peace.
	Ratnagiri	Jajpur district	Major centre of Buddhism (5th–13th centuries); part of Odisha’s Diamond Triangle with Udayagiri and Lalitgiri.
Andhra Pradesh	Amaravati	Amaravati	Site of the ancient Amaravati Stupa (2nd century BCE) with rich Buddhist sculptures and inscriptions.
	Nagarjunakonda	Nagarjuna Sagar region	Important Buddhist site named after scholar Nagarjuna; remains preserved in a museum after submergence by the dam.
Tamil Nadu	Kanchipuram (Kanchi Buddha)	Kanchipuram	Ancient centre of Buddhist learning; contains a 1400-year-old Buddha statue.
Maharashtra	Ajanta Caves	Aurangabad district	Rock-cut caves (2nd century BCE) famous for Buddhist paintings and sculptures depicting Jataka tales.
	Ellora Caves	Aurangabad district	Buddhist caves with large monasteries and intricate carvings.
	Deekshabhoomi	Nagpur	Site where Dr. B. R. Ambedkar converted to Buddhism in 1956 with thousands of followers; centre of Navayana (Neo-Buddhism).
Madhya Pradesh	Sanchi	Raisen district	Famous for the Great Stupa, commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
Gujarat	Uparkot Caves	Junagadh	Buddhist rock-cut caves from the Maurya and Gupta periods, used as meditation halls.
Delhi	Buddha Jayanti Park	New Delhi	Contains a sapling of the original Bodhi Tree from Bodh Gaya.