Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements (1919–22)

Background to the Movements

The ground had already been prepared by earlier events:

1. First World War (1914–18)
   • Heavy taxation, soaring prices, widespread unemployment, and economic hardships affected all sections of society.
   • This created a deep anti-British mood.
2. Rowlatt Act (1919)
   • A draconian law curtailing civil liberties, widely opposed through Gandhi’s first Satyagraha.
   • Though withdrawn, it left behind bitterness.
3. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
   • A national shock.
   • Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood.
   • Convinced Indians that justice could not be expected from British rule.
4. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)
   • Projected as a concession, but in reality, a disappointment.
   • Congress condemned them as “unsatisfactory and disappointing.”

👉 Together, these developments created a situation ripe for a mass uprising. The immediate spark, however, came from the Khilafat issue.

The Khilafat Issue

• During the First World War, Turkey had sided with Germany and Austria against Britain.
• For Indian Muslims, the Sultan of Turkey was their spiritual leader (Khalifa or Caliph).
• After the war, Britain removed the Khalifa from power and imposed harsh terms on Turkey.

Demands of Indian Muslims

1. The Khalifa must retain control over the holy places of Islam.
2. He must be left with sufficient territory to defend the Islamic faith.

Formation of Khilafat Committee (1919)

• Leaders: Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali, Muhammad Ali), Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasrat Mohani.
• Objective: To pressurise Britain into changing its policy towards Turkey.
• They launched countrywide agitation.

All-India Khilafat Conference (Delhi, Nov 22–23, 1919)

• Passed a resolution advocating non-cooperation with the British Government if demands were ignored.

Congress and the Khilafat Movement

• Leaders like Lokmanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi saw this as a golden opportunity:
  • To bring the Muslim masses into the nationalist struggle.
  • To cement Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.
• Gandhi took an unusual step: he fully embraced the Khilafat cause and even became President of the All-India Khilafat Committee.

👉 At first, Gandhi’s stance (till May 1920) was moderate — he wanted to persuade the British peacefully.

But two developments hardened his position:

1. The harsh Treaty of Sèvres (1920) against Turkey.
2. The Hunter Committee Report (May 1920) justifying British atrocities in Punjab.

Now Gandhi openly advocated non-cooperation with the British.

Towards the Non-Cooperation Movement

• In June 1920, an all-party conference at Allahabad approved a common programme:
  • Boycott of schools, colleges, law courts, government jobs, and British titles.
• On 31 August 1920, the Khilafat Committee officially launched the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Gandhi was the first to join.

Personal Sacrifice by Gandhi

To set an example, he returned his medals to the government:

1. Kaisar-i-Hind Medal (for humanitarian work in South Africa).
2. Boer War Medal (for his role in 1899–1900 as a stretcher-bearer).
3. Zulu War Medal (for his role in 1906).

👉 These symbolic acts showed Gandhi’s total rejection of British honours and inspired people to give up government posts, jobs, and titles.

Leadership Change

• On 1 August 1920, Lokmanya Tilak passed away.
• His death created a big vacuum in Indian politics.
• But soon, a new triumvirate of leadership emerged:
  • Mahatma Gandhi (mass leader),
  • C.R. Das (key organiser),
  • Motilal Nehru (senior statesman).

Together, they carried the movement forward.

Significance

The merging of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movements transformed India’s struggle into a pan-India mass movement. For the first time:

• Hindus and Muslims fought shoulder-to-shoulder.
• Millions of peasants, students, and workers got directly involved.
• Gandhi emerged as the undisputed leader of Indian nationalism.

Special Session of Congress, Calcutta (September 1920)

• President: Lala Lajpat Rai.
• This was a decisive session where Gandhi’s proposal of Non-Cooperation was debated.

The Programme Announced

People were asked:

• To boycott government institutions: schools, colleges, law courts, and legislatures.
• To boycott foreign clothes and instead promote khadi, hand-spinning, and hand-weaving.
• To surrender government honours and titles (like knighthoods, medals, etc.).

👉 Importantly, the Congress declared that non-cooperation would continue until the Punjab wrongs (Jallianwala Bagh) and Khilafat wrongs were remedied, and Swaraj was achieved.

However, the final ratification of the programme was left to the upcoming Nagpur Session (December 1920).

The Dual Programme of Non-Cooperation

The Congress outlined two sets of actions:

• Constructive Programme (Positive Work)
  • Establishment of national schools and colleges.
  • Promotion of indigenous goods.
  • Charkha and Khadi as symbols of self-reliance and Swadeshi.
• Non-Constructive (Negative) Programme
  • Boycott of government schools, law courts, legislatures.
  • Boycott of foreign clothes.
  • Renunciation of titles and honours given by the government.

👉 Gandhi insisted on the constructive side because he believed true swaraj could not come only from protest, but also from building alternatives.

Nagpur Session of Congress (December 1920)

• President: C. Vijayaraghavachariar.
• C.R. Das moved the resolution of Non-Cooperation — a big change since he had earlier been a critic of Gandhi’s methods, but now became one of its strongest advocates.
• The resolution was passed, and the Non-Cooperation Movement officially became the programme of the Congress.

Organisational Reforms at Nagpur

The Nagpur Session was revolutionary because it restructured the Congress into a true mass organisation:

1. Congress Working Committee (CWC)
   • A 15-member committee (including the President and Secretaries) was formed.
   • This gave Congress a permanent executive body to conduct affairs year-round, instead of only at annual sessions.
2. All-India Committee
   • A larger representative body of 350 members was created.
3. Provincial Congress Committees (PCCs)
   • Reorganised on a linguistic basis, so they could reach people in local languages.
   • Extended Congress influence into towns, villages, and mohallas.
4. Congress Membership
   • Open to all men and women above 21 on payment of four annas annually.
   • In 1921, the age limit was further reduced to 18 years.
   • This was a deliberate move to bring in students, peasants, and the poor.

👉 The result: Congress was no longer just a debating society of elites — it became the organiser of the Indian masses.

Inception of the Working Committee

• Earlier, Congress relied on the press and annual sessions. Leaders like Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal criticised this. Tilak had quipped:

“We will not achieve any success in our labours if we croak once a year like a frog.”

• In the Lucknow Session (1916), Tilak proposed a permanent Working Committee to manage affairs continuously. But moderates opposed it.
• Finally, under Gandhi’s leadership, the CWC was established in 1920, making Congress an effective centralised political machine.

Departure of Senior Leaders

Not all leaders accepted Gandhi’s mass movement approach. Some left Congress at this stage:

• Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, G.S. Kharpade, B.C. Pal.
• They believed in constitutional and lawful struggle, not hartals, strikes, and satyagraha.
• They opposed mass mobilisation and militant tactics like courting imprisonment.

👉 Their departure marked a clear shift of Congress from constitutional politics to mass struggle under Gandhi.

Gandhi’s Call for Non-Cooperation

Gandhi gave a very simple yet powerful logic:

“British rule exists in India because we cooperate with it. It survives only because of our cooperation. If we refuse to cooperate, it will collapse within a year, and Swaraj will come.”

This message electrified the nation because it made ordinary people feel powerful — that even without arms, their simple refusal to obey could defeat an empire.

Historical Importance

• The Nagpur Session of 1920 marks the formal birth of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• It also represents the transformation of Congress into a mass-based party, with Gandhi as its undisputed leader.
• The combination of Khilafat wrongs, Jallianwala Bagh, Rowlatt Act, and disillusionment with reforms gave the movement extraordinary strength.

Excellent — now we’re entering the high tide of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1921–22), when Gandhi’s call truly turned into a mass upsurge across India. This phase is important because it shows how ordinary Indians — peasants, workers, women, tribals — entered the national movement for the first time, each in their own way. Let’s continue:

Spread of the Movement

From 1921, the Non-Cooperation Movement swept across the country like wildfire:

• Students
  • Thousands left government schools and colleges.
  • New national institutions were created:
    • Jamia Millia Islamia (initially at Aligarh, later Delhi).
    • Bihar Vidyapith.
    • Kashi Vidyapith.
    • Gujarat Vidyapith.
• Lawyers
  • Prominent leaders like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Rajendra Prasad gave up their legal practice.
• Women
  • Actively participated in picketing liquor and cloth shops.
  • Many gave up purdah and even donated their jewellery to the Tilak Swarajya Fund.
• Bonfires of foreign cloth
  • Across India, imported clothes were burnt.
  • Khadi became a symbol of national pride and resistance.
• Tilak Swarajya Fund (1920)
  • Launched to finance the movement.
  • Within six months, it collected over ₹1 crore — a massive amount in those days.

👉 In these years, Gandhi with his charkha (spinning wheel) became the abiding image of Indian nationalism. He personally spun daily and urged all to do so. Spinning broke social hierarchies by bridging the gap between mental and manual labour.

Gandhi’s Idea of the Charkha

• Gandhi opposed the blind spread of modern machine-driven industries, which he believed exploited human labour.
• The charkha symbolised self-reliance, dignity of labour, and economic independence for the poor.
• It was not just economic, but also spiritual and moral resistance to British industrial domination.

Radicalisation of the Movement

• In May 1921, the All-India Khilafat Committee passed a resolution that Muslims should not serve in the British Indian Army.
• The Ali brothers were arrested (Sept 1921), intensifying anger.
• Gandhi supported this resolution, extending it to all Indians: No Indian should serve a government that degraded the country socially, economically, and politically.

👉 With this, Congress permitted provincial committees to launch civil disobedience, including tax refusal, wherever people were ready.

Gandhi’s Simple Attire

• On 22 September 1921, Gandhi shifted from his Gujarati attire to a simple dhoti and shawl.
• This was after poor villagers told him they couldn’t afford even khadi.
• Gandhi wanted to look like, and live like, the masses.
• His attire became symbolic of his mission — to unite with India’s poorest millions.

People’s Initiatives and Local Movements

While Congress leaders advocated discipline and non-violence, the masses interpreted Gandhi’s call in their own ways, often linking it to local grievances:

1. Punjab – Akali Movement
   • Sikhs launched a campaign to free Gurudwaras from corrupt mahants (priests).
   • Closely tied with the spirit of non-cooperation.
2. Malabar (Kerala) – Moplah Revolt (1921)
   • Muslim peasants (Moplahs) rose against oppressive zamindars (mostly Hindu landlords).
   • Began as agrarian struggle but soon turned communal and violent.
3. Assam – Tea Plantation Workers
   • Strikes broke out; workers shouted “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai”.
   • Assamese devotional songs even replaced the name of Krishna with “Gandhi Raja”.
4. Andhra – Tribal Revolts
   • Tribals resisted harsh forest laws by grazing cattle without paying fees (“forest satyagrahas”).
   • Alluri Sitaram Raju united tribals, combining their demands with the Non-Cooperation Movement.
5. United Provinces & Bihar – Peasant Movements
   • Kisan Movement (led by Baba Ram Chandra, 1921): demanded abolition of nazrana (extra rent), end to begar (forced labour), and no forced supplies (rasad).
   • Eka Movement (1921): led by Madari Pasi in Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur; demanded rent reduction and against landlord oppression.

👉 Thus, the movement spread beyond cities into villages, peasants, and tribals, though often in ways not strictly Gandhian.

Gandhi’s Image as “People’s Mahatma”

• Masses saw Gandhi as a messiah who would end their poverty and oppression.
• Many credited local victories (like stopping illegal evictions in Pratapgarh) directly to Gandhi, even if he was not involved.
• Rumours spread that Gandhi had miraculous powers:
  • Sent by the King to redress grievances.
  • Stronger than the English monarch.
  • Opponents of Gandhi would face mysterious misfortunes.

👉 This “miraculous aura” made Gandhi a folk hero, giving the movement spiritual force but also creating expectations that were sometimes beyond Gandhian ideals.

Significance

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1921–22) reached villages, forests, schools, courts, and homes. It mobilised students, women, peasants, tribals, workers, and elites alike. For the first time, India witnessed a nationwide revolt of the masses under a single leadership.

But — as we shall soon see — the challenge was how to maintain non-violent discipline amidst such explosive mass energy.

Excellent — now we’ve reached the climax and conclusion of the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements (1919–22). This section explains both the promise and the limitations of the first great Gandhian mass struggle. Let’s continue:

Government Response

The British responded as expected — with repression:

• Congress and Khilafat volunteer organisations were declared unlawful.
• Public assemblies and processions were banned.
• Police routinely lathi-charged and fired upon satyagrahis.
• By the end of 1921, almost all top leaders were in jail — except Gandhi.

👉 The government machinery was fully mobilised to crush the movement.

The Last Phase of the Movement

• On 1 February 1922, Gandhi sent an ultimatum to the Viceroy, warning that he would start mass civil disobedience, including non-payment of taxes, unless:
  1. Political prisoners were released.
  2. Press freedom was restored.
• Since the whole country was not yet ready, Gandhi decided to launch the campaign in Bardoli (Gujarat) — but before it could start, an unexpected tragedy occurred.

The Chauri Chaura Incident (5 February 1922)

• In the small town of Chauri Chaura (U.P.), a procession of about 3,000 peasants was fired upon by police.
• Enraged, the crowd attacked and burnt the police station, killing 22 policemen.

👉 Gandhi was deeply disturbed. To him, this proved that the people had not yet mastered the discipline of non-violence. If the movement turned violent, the British could easily crush it — and morally, it would lose legitimacy.

So, Gandhi took the extraordinary step of suspending the movement.

The Bardoli Resolution (12 February 1922)

• At Bardoli, the Congress Working Committee passed a resolution calling off the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Congressmen were urged to focus instead on constructive programmes like:
  • Popularisation of khadi,
  • Establishment of national schools,
  • Promotion of Hindu–Muslim unity,
  • Removal of untouchability,
  • Temperance (anti-liquor).

Reactions

• The decision shocked the nation.
• C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhas Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru and others criticised Gandhi’s move.
  • Bose called it a “national calamity.”
  • Jawaharlal Nehru expressed “amazement and consternation.”
• But Gandhi’s moral authority was so strong that no one openly opposed him. The movement ended.

👉 Gandhi even undertook a five-day fast as penance for the violence.

Causes of Withdrawal

• The people had not fully grasped non-violence.
• The movement was turning violent, which the British could easily suppress.
• Signs of fatigue were visible — a mass agitation cannot remain at fever pitch indefinitely.
• Local struggles (like no-rent agitations) were slipping out of Congress control, risking chaos.
• The British showed no willingness to negotiate.

Gandhi’s Arrest

• On 10 March 1922, Gandhi was arrested and charged with sedition (spreading disaffection).
• In his famous statement during trial, Gandhi declared:

“Non-cooperation with evil is as much a duty as cooperation with good.”

• He was sentenced to six years in prison, though he served two years before being released.

End of the Khilafat Movement

Soon after, the Khilafat issue itself lost relevance:

• In Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) rose to power.
• He:
  • Deprived the Sultan of political power (1922).
  • Modernised Turkey into a secular state.
  • Abolished the Caliphate (1924).
  • Introduced radical reforms — secular education, women’s rights, new legal codes, industrialisation.

👉 Thus, the very cause around which Indian Muslims had mobilised disappeared.

Some historians criticise the Khilafat Movement for mixing religion with politics, which later encouraged communalism.
But it’s equally important to note that in India, Khilafat was not just about the Caliph — it reflected wider anti-imperialist sentiments of Muslims. This is why, when the Caliphate was abolished in 1924, there was no major protest in India.

Contribution of Khilafat and Non-Cooperation

Despite ending abruptly, the movements achieved historic results:

• Hindu–Muslim Unity reached a peak.
• Brought urban Muslims into the mainstream nationalist struggle.
• Students, women, peasants, workers participated in unprecedented numbers.
• Nationalist sentiment penetrated villages, towns, and every social stratum.
• Masses displayed a willingness to suffer and sacrifice.
• Gandhi’s social emphasis weakened barriers of caste and untouchability, accelerating reform.
• It created enormous self-confidence and self-esteem among Indians.
• Boycott of foreign goods benefited the Indian textile industry.

Changing Perceptions of Congress

Before this movement, Viceroy Dufferin (1888) had dismissed the Congress as representing only a “microscopic minority.”

But after 1920–22:

• Congress had transformed into a true mass movement.
• Gandhi had carried nationalism to the poorest peasant, worker, and artisan.
• By 1922, Indian nationalism was irreversible.

✨ In summary:

The Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements (1919–22) were India’s first great experiment in mass satyagraha. They united diverse sections of society, transformed Congress into a mass party, and made Gandhi the undisputed leader. Though suspended after Chauri Chaura, they left behind a legacy of confidence, unity, and political awakening that shaped every subsequent phase of the freedom struggle.