Polity, Economy and Social Life: Sangam Age

Introduction to Sangam Polity

The Sangam Age (circa 300 BCE to 300 CE) represents the earliest phase of Tamil history — a rich era known for its flourishing literature, structured political systems, and maritime trade. The political structure, though ancient, was remarkably organized and dynamic, with unique features that reflected both royal authority and regional variations.

System of Governance: Hereditary Monarchy

The dominant form of government in the Sangam period was the hereditary monarchy — where power passed from father to son. The king (ruler) was the central authority and was revered not only as a ruler but sometimes even as a divine figure.

🟢 Titles of the King: Multiple Names, Different Contexts

Ko – This word meant both king and God, suggesting a divine aura around kingship.
Mannan – Used for lesser or local kings, reflecting rank-based hierarchy.
Vendar – Only the three crowned monarchs of Tamilakam — the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas — were called Vendar. These were sovereign rulers and wore the ceremonial crown (veyndon).

Thus, in Sangam polity, titles conveyed more than status — they reflected a ruler’s legitimacy, scope of power, and even cultural prestige.

Administrative Structure

A king, however powerful, didn’t rule alone. He was advised and assisted by several institutions and officials:

⚖️ Advisors and Administrative Council

Imperial Court (Avai): A consultative body where chiefs, ministers, and poets advised the king.
The administration was organized into five important councils:
1. Amaichar – Ministers
2. Anthanar – Priests (often Brahmanas, playing ritualistic roles)
3. Senapathi – Military Commanders
4. Thuthar – Envoys or messengers (used for diplomacy)
5. Orrar – Spies, who gathered intelligence

These five officials acted like the pillars of state machinery, providing balance and functionality to the king’s rule

Military and Defence System

The Sangam kings maintained a rudimentary but significant military system.

Components of the Army:
- Chariots drawn by oxen
- War elephants – played a dominant role in battlefield
- Cavalry (horse riders) – Horses were imported through maritime trade, especially by the Pandyas.
- Infantry (foot soldiers) – Equipped with protective footwear like leather sandals.

Interestingly, armed women guarded the king, a unique feature not commonly seen in other ancient Indian polities.

Hierarchy in Warfare:
- Nobles and princes rode elephants.
- Commanders used horse-drawn chariots.
- Footmen formed the base of the army.

This hierarchy reflects a strategic deployment of forces and clear command structures in warfare

Succession and Symbols of State

🟡 Royal Succession

The eldest son inherited the throne as a matter of right.
This legal claim to the throne was known as Murai Mudal Kattil.

🟡 Dynastic Emblems – Symbols of Identity

Pandyas – Fish
Cholas – Tiger
Cheras – Bow

These symbols were more than motifs — they reflected the cultural, military, and territorial identity of each dynasty.

Administrative Units

To govern efficiently, these kingdoms were divided into smaller administrative regions:

Mandilam – The entire kingdom (e.g., Chola Mandalam)
Ur – A town
Perur – A large village
Sirur – A small village

This classification shows a clear attempt at organized governance, with urban and rural settlements classified distinctly.

Role of Minor Chieftains (Velir)

Though subordinate to the three great dynasties, the Velir or minor chieftains wielded substantial local influence.

They paid tribute to the main kings.
Despite being vassals, they often exercised considerable autonomy and were popular in their regions.

The Velir were like the feudal lords of later periods — essential for maintaining territorial integrity and local governance.

Economic Foundations of Sangam Polity

The Sangam polity was strongly supported by a flourishing economy, based on agriculture, trade, and war booty.

🌾 Agriculture: The Backbone

The Kaveri delta and southern peninsula were fertile zones.
Key crops: Paddy, ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, turmeric, cinnamon, etc.
Agriculture was taxed — the king received a share, making it the chief source of income.

🗺️ Five Ecological Zones and Land Classification:

Kurinji – Hills
Mullai – Pastoral lands
Marudam – Fertile agricultural plains
Neydal – Coastal regions
Palai – Arid and desert zones

This ecological classification reflects an advanced understanding of geography and economic activity.

🌍 Trade: Internal and Overseas

🔁 Internal Trade

Trade of agricultural produce, textiles, spices, and crafts.

🌐 Foreign Trade

Trade with Greek and Roman empires.
Surge in trade post Roman conquest of Egypt (30 BCE) and the discovery of monsoon winds.

Pepper became so valuable that it was called “Black Gold” in the Roman world.

Main Exports:

Spices (Pepper, Cardamom, Ginger, Cinnamon)
Cotton fabrics
Ivory products
Pearls and precious stones

Main Imports:

Gold
Horses
Roman wine
Amphorae and pottery

⛵ Monsoon and Maritime Trade

The discovery of monsoon winds was a game-changer:

South-West Monsoon was used to sail from Arabia/East Africa to India.
North-East Monsoon helped in returning.

This enabled regular sea voyages and seasonal trade cycles.

🌍 Foreign Merchants – The Yavanas

Yavanas – A term used by Indians for Greeks and Romans.
These merchants resided in designated quarters near harbours.
Their presence indicates settled trade relationships and cultural exchanges.

Handicrafts and Urban Economy

The Sangam period was a hub of skilled craftsmanship:

Weaving – Cotton and silk textiles, especially from Uraiyur (famous for superfine cotton).
Metal work, shipbuilding, ornament-making using beads and ivory.
The clothes were so fine, they were described as “thin as steam” or “snake slough.”

Important Ports and Urban Centres

The coastal towns were trade centres:

Puhar (Kaveripattinam) – Main port and trade emporium.
Others: Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Marakkanam, Arikamedu

🧱 Arikamedu (Puducherry): A Key Archaeological Site

Warehouse ruins discovered.
Finds: Amphorae, Arretine Ware, Roman lamps, glassware, gems, dyeing vats.
Significance: Proves the depth of Roman trade and urban sophistication.

War Booty and Military Campaigns

Frequent wars among Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and with Sri Lanka.
Spoils of war were added to the royal treasury.
Kings shared the booty with relatives, commanders, and poets.

In case of defeat, a Tamil king would perform Vattakirutal – a ritual suicide by fasting to preserve honour. This reflects the code of martial ethics and the value of prestige in Tamil polity.

Sangam Society: Rise of Social Classes, Religion, and Brahmanical Influence

Social Structure in the Sangam Age: Gradual Evolution, Not Rigid Stratification

One of the most interesting features of early Tamilakam society during the Sangam period was the absence of a rigid caste system, unlike the later varna-based stratification seen in northern India.

Instead of a four-fold varna system, the society was broadly occupationally divided.

🟠 Tolkappiyam’s Classification (Proto-Caste System)

The Tolkappiyam, a foundational Tamil grammar text, refers to four primary social groups:

Social Group	Role
Arasar	Ruling class or kings
Anthanar	Priestly class (early Brahmanas)
Vanigar	Traders or merchant community
Vellalar	Agriculturists and landowners

🔹 The Vellalars were the dominant landowning class, but even they were internally divided:

Rich Vellalars: Owned land, did not plough themselves.
Poor Vellalars: Often involved in manual farming.
Lowest class (Kadaisiyar): Performed actual agricultural labour, with a status barely above slavery.

This reveals a clear rural hierarchy — ownership vs. labour — foreshadowing class divisions of later centuries.

🔵 Artisans and Tribal Communities

Some artisans, like Pariyars, doubled up as agricultural labourers and also worked with animal skins, using them as mats.
Outcastes and tribal groups lived on the margins of society, often in extreme poverty.

Key tribal groups:

Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar, Pulaiyar — often semi-nomadic or forest-based.
Thodas, Irulas, Nagas, Vedars — ancient tribal peoples of the region.

Sangam society shows the beginnings of social hierarchy, but not full-blown caste rigidity.

🟡 Class Inequality in Urban Life

Rich merchants and elite lived in brick-mortar multi-storeyed houses, often on upper floors.
Poor classes lived in huts or temporary structures, marking visible inequality in housing and lifestyle.

Arrival and Integration of Brahmanas in the South

One of the significant social transformations of the Sangam period was the introduction and gradual integration of Brahmanical influence.

🟣 Brahmanas in Tamilakam

First appearance of Brahmanas in historical Tamil literature.
An ideal king, as per Sangam poems, was one who:
- Did not harm Brahmanas
- Generously donated to religious causes
- Supported arts, culture, and poets

This reflects growing cultural prestige of Brahmanas, even before full-scale Vedic orthodoxy took root.

🟣 Brahmanas as Poets and Intellectuals

Many Brahmanas served as court poets and were rewarded handsomely.
Example: Karikala Chola is said to have gifted 1.6 million gold coins to a poet — likely an exaggeration, but symbolically important.
Gifts included: gold, cash, land, horses, chariots, and even elephants.

Tamil Brahmanas of this era consumed meat and wine, indicating regional variations in practice from later-day orthodoxy.

Rise of Brahmanism and Religious Integration

As Brahmanas became culturally integrated, Brahmanism began influencing the state, society, and religious life of Tamilakam.

🔴 Early Features of Brahmanism in the South

Vedic sacrifices were conducted by kings.
Philosophical debates and religious disputations were common.
Local deities were gradually merged into the Hindu pantheon:
- For example, Murugan, the chief Tamil deity of war and youth, came to be identified with Subramaniya (Kartikeya) — the son of Shiva.

🔴 Funerary Practices

Megalithic traditions (like inhumation) continued.
Simultaneously, cremation was introduced under Vedic influence.
Offering paddy to the dead was a continuing ritual — signifying a fusion of old and new belief systems.

Gods, Worship, and Religious Pluralism in Sangam Society

🟩 Chief Deities

Murugan – Chief god of the hill people. Sangam literature is rich with hymns praising him.
Vishnu – Mentioned occasionally, though his worship likely increased in the post-Sangam period.

🟩 Hero Worship and Nadu Kal Tradition

Hero Stones (Nadu Kal) were erected in memory of fallen warriors.
These stones were worshipped, not just commemorated — showing deep respect for martial heroism.
This practice was both ritualistic and emotional, and part of Tamil martial culture.

Spread of Buddhism and Jainism in the Tamil Country

Although Brahmanism gained ground, the Sangam period was also a time of religious diversity.

🟦 Buddhism

Had limited presence in Tamil Nadu.
Evidence from Kaveripattinam and Kanchipuram (Buddhist stupas found).
However, it did not make deep inroads among the common masses.

🟦 Jainism

More prominent and better received.
Evidence: Numerous cave shelters with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
Merchants and laypersons donated food and shelter to Jain monks.
Jain monks influenced Tamil literature in the post-Sangam period, especially during the early medieval era.