The Rise of Crafts, Trade, and Towns in the Post-Maurya Period

Background Context

Let us begin by understanding the larger historical canvas. After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, India did not disintegrate into cultural darkness. Instead, regional powers like the Shakas, Kushans, Satavahanas, and the early Tamil kingdoms (Chera, Chola, Pandya) rose to prominence.

This era witnessed a remarkable revival and growth in crafts, trade, and urban life—an economic vibrancy which laid the foundations for early Indian capitalism in many ways.

Proliferation of Crafts

📚 Textual Evidence:

• Even in the Pre-Maurya period, Buddhist texts like the Digha Nikaya mention around two dozen professions.
• But by the Post-Maurya period, texts like the Mahavastu speak of 36 types of workers in Rajgir.
• Milinda Panho, a Pali text, lists 75 occupations, 60 of which were directly related to crafts and artisanal work.

👉 Interpretation: This reflects a growing specialization of labour and diversification of the economy.

Advancements in Mining and Metallurgy

🛠️ Key Craft Areas:

Eight core areas are mentioned in connection with the working of metals and stones:

• Gold, Silver, Lead, Tin, Copper, Brass, Iron, and Precious Stones

Even rare materials like zinc, antimony, and red arsenic were known and utilized. This level of metallurgical knowledge reflects a highly evolved technological culture.

Iron Technology: A Technological Leap

🔍 Archaeological Evidence:

• Significant iron artifacts found in Kushana and Satavahana sites.
• The Telangana region (Karimnagar and Nalgonda) was especially rich in iron implements:
  • Weapons, socketed axes, ploughshares, razors, ladles, etc.

🌍 Export:

• Indian iron and steel (including cutlery) were exported to Abyssinian ports (East Africa) and Western Asia, where they were held in high regard.

👉 Implication: India had become a part of an early global trade network, and its metallurgy had gained international prestige.

Diverse Crafts and Industries

🧶 Textiles and Luxury Goods:

• Cloth-making and silk-weaving flourished.
• Mathura became famous for its “shataka” cloth.
• In South India, particularly in towns like Uraiyur and Arikamedu, dyeing was a well-established industry. Brick vats from 1st to 3rd centuries CE have been excavated—evidence of organized production.

🛕 Artisans as Donors:

• Inscriptions reveal that artisans weren’t just producers—they were economically prosperous enough to donate:
  • Caves, cisterns, and pillars to Buddhist monasteries.
• Professions mentioned: Weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, ivory workers, jewellers, sculptors, fishermen, perfumers, etc.

Luxury Handicrafts

🐘 Ivory & Glass Work:

• Ivory artifacts have been discovered in Afghanistan and Rome, matching those at Satavahana sites in India.
• Roman glassware was found in Taxila and Afghanistan, but over time, glass-blowing became an indigenous Indian technique by the beginning of the Christian era.

💎 Bead Industry:

• Beads made of semi-precious stones, shell, and glass were common.
• The shell industry also thrived, indicating the economic integration of coastal regions.

Terracotta Craftsmanship in Urban Centres

• Terracotta figures were mass-produced during the Kushana and Satavahana periods.
• Sites like Yelleshwaram and Kondapur (Telangana) yielded not just terracotta figurines, but also moulds—suggesting assembly-line-like production.
• These objects catered primarily to the urban elite.
• However, the popularity of terracotta declined during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, as urban centres began to wane.

Coin-Minting as Craft

• Minting coins was an industrial-scale craft involving:
  • Gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead, and potin (a tin-lead alloy).
• Interestingly, counterfeit Roman coins were also produced—showing not only creativity but also a certain grey-market entrepreneurship.

Guilds or Shrenis: Organizing Artisans

• Artisans were organized into professional guilds known as Shrenis—a kind of economic collective.
• At least two dozen Shrenis have been recorded.
• Prominent regions: Mathura and Western Deccan—both linked to major trade routes.

Religious Endowments:

• In 2nd century CE Maharashtra, Buddhist laymen donated to guilds of potters, weavers, oil pressers, etc., who in turn provided for the needs of monks.
• In Mathura, a chief donated to the flour-makers’ guild, whose interest income fed 100 Brahmins daily.

Craftsmen in Rural Areas

• While literary texts focus on urban craftsmen, archaeological findings show their presence in villages too.
• In Karimnagar (Telangana), rural settlements were clearly zoned:
  • Carpenters, blacksmiths, potters, etc., had designated quarters.
  • Agricultural laborers were housed separately.

👉 Insight: Even villages were economically diversified, with a division of labour akin to towns.

🌍 Foreign Trade in the Post-Maurya Period

India and the Roman Empire: A Golden Trade Era

By the beginning of the Common Era, India was part of a vast and vibrant intercontinental trade network. The Roman Empire had emerged as the dominant power in the Western world, and India—especially its southern and western coastal regions—became a key trade partner.

Trade Routes: Overland to Maritime Shift

Initially, trade with the West—especially with the eastern Roman Empire—was conducted overland via Central Asia and Iran.

🚫 Disruptions:

• The rise of the Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas disrupted these land routes.
• The Parthians of Iran even hindered overland access to Rome, though they themselves imported Indian iron and steel.

🛳️ The Maritime Solution:

• The discovery of monsoon winds allowed Indian and Roman sailors to synchronize their voyages with seasonal winds.
• This revolutionized navigation, making maritime routes safer and faster.

Key Indian Ports:

Port Name (Ancient)	Modern Location
Broach / Barygaza	Bharuch, Gujarat
Sopara	Nallasopara, Maharashtra
Arikamedu	Near Puducherry
Tamralipti	Tamluk, West Bengal

Among these, Broach (Bharukachchha) became the most important port, receiving goods from Satavahana, Shaka, and Kushana territories.

Nature of Trade: What Went Out, What Came In

📤 Exports from India:

The trade was primarily in luxury items, meant for the elite sections of Roman society. The Roman appetite for Indian goods—especially spices, textiles, and gemstones—was enormous.

Main Exports:

Category	Items
Spices & Aromatics	Pepper, spikenard, malabathrum, saffron, bdellium, costus, lycium
Precious Items	Pearls, ivory, diamonds, tortoise shell, jewels, precious stones
Woods	Ebony, teak, blackwood, sandalwood, bamboo
Textiles	Silk, muslin, mallow cloth
Dyes	Indigo, lac
Cutlery & Iron Goods	Especially sought by Roman elites for quality and durability
Semi-Precious Stones	Agate, red jasper, carnelian, onyx

🇨🇳 Silk from China—Routed via India:

• Originally, Chinese silk was transported through the Silk Route.
• But as the Parthians controlled Central Iran, Roman access was blocked.
• So silk was re-routed via India, turning India into a transit hub in the global silk trade.

📥 Imports to India from Rome:

India didn’t just export—it also imported both luxury and utility items:

Category	Imported Goods
Metals & Currency	Gold coins, silver coins, copper, tin, lead (used in coin minting)
Wine	In amphorae (Roman jars), a marker of Roman elite lifestyle
Ceramics	Red glazed Arretine ware, Red Polished Ware (found at Arikamedu)
Other Goods	Dates, frankincense, glass beads

👉 Lead, likely used by the Satavahanas for coin-making, was imported in coiled strips from Rome.

Positive Balance of Trade: India as a Net Gainer

Now, here’s the most important point from an economic UPSC perspective:

💰 India had a favorable balance of trade with Rome.

Evidence:

• Over 150 finds of Roman coins in India, mostly south of the Vindhyas.
• Most of these coins were gold and silver, revealing a steady inflow of bullion.

📝 Roman Frustration:

• Roman writer Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History, complained about Roman gold being drained to India.

“India, China, and Arabia take from our empire 100 million sesterces annually.“

• By 22 CE, complaints arose in Rome about excessive spending on Indian pepper.
• Roman elites criticized the high prices they paid for Indian steel cutlery.

👉 So serious was this economic outflow, that trade bans on pepper and steel were considered in Rome.

Asymmetry in Indo-Roman Trade Presence

🧭 Roman Traders in India:

• Roman merchants were permanently stationed in South Indian port towns.
• Roman amphorae, coins, and ceramics have been discovered in large quantities.

🧾 Indian Presence in Rome:

• Evidence is limited.
• Only a few Tamil inscriptions have been found in Egypt, suggesting some Indian merchant activity, but far less compared to Roman presence in India.

Which Indian Powers Benefited?

• Both the Satavahanas (Deccan) and the Kushanas (North India) gained from Indo-Roman trade.
• However, based on archaeological finds and port control, Satavahanas benefited more, especially through Broach and Arikamedu.

💰 Money Economy, Urbanization & the Silk Road (200 BCE – 300 CE)

💰 Money Economy: The Rise of Monetary Transactions

🔄 Transition from Barter to Coins

The money economy had begun during the Mauryan period but matured and expanded significantly in the Post-Maurya period, particularly due to:

• Flourishing arts and crafts
• Expanding urban centers
• Booming foreign trade, especially with the Roman Empire

🪙 Coinage and its Spread

• Roman silver and gold coins—thanks to Indo-Roman trade—entered Indian markets.
• While these high-value coins were probably used for bulk transactions or hoarding, the day-to-day transactions of common people relied on copper, lead, or potin (a tin-lead alloy) coins.

🏛️ Who issued coins?

Dynasty/Region	Coin Type	Notes
Kushanas	Gold & Copper	Gold coins modeled on Roman dinar style. Largest copper coin issuers in the northwest.
Satavahanas (Andhras)	Lead & Potin	Used local metal deposits.
Indo-Greeks	Some Gold	Preceded Kushanas in coin minting.
Southern Peninsula (Sangam Age)	Punch-marked & early coins	Regional circulation
Other Regional Powers	Copper/Bronze coins	E.g., Nagas, Yaudheyas, Mitra rulers of Kaushambi & Mathura

🛢️ Source of Gold

Not all gold coins came from Rome:

• Gold was extracted from Sindh, Karnataka, Dhalbhum (South Bihar), and Central Asia.

🏙️ Urbanization and the Rise of Towns

🌇 Urban Growth and Prosperity

The growth of trade, crafts, and coinage directly led to the emergence and prosperity of towns, especially under the:

• Kushanas in north and northwest India
• Satavahanas in the Deccan
• Shakas in western India

Key Towns & Their Importance:

Region	Towns	Special Features
Malwa	Ujjain	Hub of agate and carnelian exports, major trade route junction
Deccan	Tagar, Paithan, Amaravati, Dhanyakataka	Export centers linked to Roman trade
South India	Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, Sopara	Port towns with Roman trade links
Northwest	Mathura, Taxila	On the Uttarapatha, linked to Central Asian trade

👉 These towns were cosmopolitan, often home to merchants, artisans, Roman traders, and Buddhist establishments.

🧱 Architectural Decline in Gupta Period

Interestingly, during the Gupta period:

• Urban construction declined in quality.
• Buildings were made using recycled bricks from Kushana-era structures—reflecting either resource scarcity or reduced prosperity.

📉 Decline of Towns

The decline of Indo-Roman trade in the 3rd century CE had a direct impact on the urban economy.

💔 Causes:

• Rome banned trade in Indian pepper and steel to curb gold outflow.
• Kushana power declined, affecting towns along the Uttarapatha (Mathura–Taxila axis).
• In the Deccan, the Satavahana collapse and trade disruption led to urban decline.

🔍 Archaeological Evidence:

• Sites in Maharashtra, Andhra, and Tamil Nadu show signs of urban decay post-3rd century CE.
• This suggests that many towns were trade-dependent, and without it, craftsmen and merchants couldn’t sustain themselves.

🧵 Silk Road and Indian Intermediary Role

🌐 What was the Silk Road?

• A network of land-based trade routes that connected China to the Roman Empire.
• Passed through Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran.

🧭 Goods Traded:

• Silk was the most valued, but also: spices, fruits, grains, metals, animal hides, and precious stones.

🧣 The Craze for Silk

• When Chinese silk reached Rome, it created a sensation:
  • Romans had never seen such glossy, luxurious fabric.
  • Roman aristocrats adopted silk as a symbol of wealth and status.

💰 High Cost:

• Silk fetched high prices due to:
  • Dangerous terrain
  • Multiple toll taxes
  • Chinese monopoly on silk production

🏯 China’s Silk Monopoly

• Silk weaving technology was first developed 7,000 years ago in China.
• The process (from cocoon to cloth) was a closely guarded secret, giving China:
  • Monopoly over supply
  • Immense economic advantage

🏇 Kushanas & the Silk Route

The Kushana Empire (especially under Kanishka) controlled much of Central Asia and northwest India—right in the middle of the Silk Road.

🛡️ Why this mattered:

• Kushanas offered protection to Silk Road traders from robbers and instability.
• In return, they collected tolls, tributes, and gifts—generating immense wealth.

✅ This wealth enabled them to:

• Build a strong empire
• Patronize Buddhism and art
• Issue gold coins on a large scale—first time in Indian history.