The Satavahanas

Who Were the Satavahanas?

After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, the political vacuum in the Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka) was filled by a powerful new dynasty—the Satavahanas.

🧩 Background:

• During Ashoka’s reign, local rulers in Maharashtra—Rathikas and Bhojakas—served as feudatories (vassals) under Mauryan control.
• One such feudatory, Satavahana, likely from the Rathika or Bhojaka family, was the father of Simuka.
• When the Mauryan Empire started crumbling, Simuka declared independence and founded the Satavahana dynasty, which would last nearly 500 years—a rare feat in ancient Indian history.

Dating the Dynasty: A Puzzle for Historians

Like many ancient dynasties, the Satavahana timeline is debated:

• Most scholars accept their rule started in the late 2nd century BCE and lasted till early 3rd century CE.
• Some Puranic references push it back to the 3rd century BCE, but archaeological evidence does not support this.
• The most reliable epigraphical source is the Naneghat inscription (70–60 BCE), which refers to Simuka and his son Satakarni, placing their rule in the 1st century BCE.

👉 According to NCERT, the Satavahanas ruled parts of Western and Central India from 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE.

Sources of Satavahana History

• Puranas refer to them as Andhras, not Satavahanas.
• Inscriptions (like those at Nasik and Naneghat) mention rulers like Gautamiputra Satakarni and Vashishtaputra Pulamayi.
• Coins offer insights into their economy, territory, and iconography.
• Interestingly, Satavahana inscriptions do not use the term Andhra, yet Andhra and Satavahana are treated as synonymous in most historical texts.

👉 Contribution: The Satavahanas were the first to unify the Deccan, bringing together petty kingdoms and giving the region a politically coherent identity.

Political History: Key Rulers and Achievements

Let’s walk through the dynastic timeline of major rulers:

1. Simuka (Founder)

• Established the capital at Paithan (Pratishthana) in Maharashtra.
• Expanded initially toward Nasik, through his brother Kanha.
• His son Sri Satakarni was the third ruler.

2. Sri Satakarni

• Conquered western Malwa and Berar.
• Helped lay the foundation for later expansions.

3. Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 CE)

• The most powerful ruler of the Satavahana dynasty.
• His achievements are praised in the Nasik inscription, authored by his mother Gautami Balashri.

🛡️ Achievements:

• Called himself “Eka Brahmana” (unique Brahmana) and destroyer of Kshatriya pride—a symbol of Brahmana-Kshatriya tension and assertion.
• Defeated Nahapana, the Shaka ruler of Malwa, and restored Satavahana dominance in Maharashtra and western India.
• His empire stretched from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south.

✅ This marked the first revival of the Satavahanas.

4. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi (130–154 CE)

• Son of Gautamiputra Satakarni.
• Strengthened eastern territories, particularly Andhra (evident from his coins).
• Set up the capital again at Paithan on the Godavari River.

⚔️ Conflict with Shakas:

• Fought with Rudradaman I, the Shaka ruler of Saurashtra.
• Lost to Rudradaman twice, but was spared due to marital alliances between the two royal houses.

5. Yajna Sri Satakarni (165–194 CE)

• The last great ruler of the Satavahana dynasty.

🌊 Achievements:

• Second revival of Satavahanas.
• Recovered Konkan coast and Malwa from the Shakas.
• Coins show ships, indicating maritime trade and a strong navy.
• Coins have been found across Andhra, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat—showcasing the extent of influence.

6. King Hala

• The 17th ruler, not known for conquests but for literature.

📖 Gathasaptashati (Sattasai):

• Composed in Maharashtri Prakrit.
• A collection of 700 short love poems, often in the voice of unmarried or married women.
• Themes range from romance and sentimentality to humour and social realism.
• Though attributed to Hala, the text was likely compiled and revised later (possibly by 6th century CE).

Satavahanas vs. Shakas: A Prolonged Rivalry

• The Shakas (Western Kshatrapas) ruled western India and often clashed with the Satavahanas.
• The conflict was for control over strategic regions like:
  • Malwa
  • Konkan Coast
  • Upper Deccan
• Victory swayed back and forth until Yajna Sri Satakarni made the final significant gain.

🧩 Decline of the Satavahana Empire

A classic case of fragmentation after central weakening—marked by external invasions, internal instability, and regional assertions.

After the reign of Yajna Sri Satakarni, the Satavahana Empire entered a phase of gradual disintegration. Though his successors ruled till around 220 CE, their grip weakened substantially, and by the third century CE, the empire crumbled into regional powers. This fragmentation gave rise to several smaller kingdoms, each claiming dominance in parts of the erstwhile empire:

📍 Regional Powers Post-Satavahanas:

Region	Dynasty	Notable Areas Ruled
Malwa, Gujarat, Maharashtra	Western Kshatrapas	North & Western Deccan
Maharashtra (Nashik region)	Abhiras	Central Deccan
From Malwa to Tungabhadra	Vakatakas	Large part of Deccan Plateau
Krishna-Guntur (Eastern Andhra)	Andhra Ikshvakus	Coastal Andhra
Northern Karnataka	Kadambas	Upper South India
Southern Karnataka	Western Gangas	Tip of the Deccan

These new powers emerged by filling the vacuum left by the disintegrating Satavahana state.

🧬 Social Organisation of the Satavahanas

A society in transition—from tribal roots to Brahmanical orthodoxy, trying to uphold varna order but allowing flexible practices.

🟤 From Tribe to Brahmanical Rulers

• The Satavahanas originated as a tribal community in the Deccan.
• As they rose to power, they were Brahmanised—meaning they adopted Brahmanical rituals and social frameworks.
• Despite being Brahmins by caste, they claimed Kshatriya attributes to fulfill the ideal of kingship as per Dharmashastras.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni even claimed to have:
  • “Destroyed the mixing of varnas”, i.e., enforced varna boundaries.
  • Defeated the pride of Kshatriyas, i.e., the foreign rulers like the Shakas.

But in practice, contradictions existed:

• They married into Shaka families, which were outside the varna system.
• This showed a pragmatic approach rather than strict adherence.

👩‍👦‍👦 Family & Gender Norms: Matronymics in Patriarchal Rule

A very interesting and unique feature of Satavahana society was:

🟣 Matrilineal References:

• Rulers were named after their mothers (e.g., Gautamiputra – son of Gautami).
• Women, especially queens, had high status:
  • They made religious donations independently.
  • Some served as regents, i.e., ruled on behalf of minors.

⚖️ However, Succession Was Patriarchal:

• Despite matronymic names, political power was inherited by sons, not daughters.
• Thus, the Satavahana state was patriarchal, but with prominent female roles.

💍 Marriage Customs

Contrary to the exogamy (marrying outside the clan) suggested by Brahmanical rules:

• Satavahanas often followed endogamy, i.e., marriage within the kin group, which reveals continuity of older tribal traditions.

🏛️ Administration: A Mix of Mauryan Legacy and Military Control

The Satavahanas adapted Mauryan frameworks, but with stronger feudal and military characteristics.

🗺️ Administrative Structure:

• Retained Mauryan terms like:
  • Ahara = District
  • Amatyas = Ministers
  • Mahamatras = Senior officials

🛡️ Key Military & Feudal Features:

1. Senapati:
   • Acted as provincial governor.
   • Maintained control over tribal populations of the Deccan.
2. Gaulmika:
   • A local military chief who headed a regiment with chariots, elephants, cavalry, and infantry.
   • Maintained law and order in rural zones.
3. Military Camps as Admin Centres:
   • Inscriptions mention kataka and skandhavaras (military camps).
   • These camps doubled as temporary capitals when the king was on tour.

🧭 Feudatory System:

Three levels of vassals existed:

1. Raja – Could issue coins
2. Mahabhoja
3. Senapati

These vassals enjoyed local autonomy and collected revenue, but owed loyalty to the central king.

⚖️ Economic System: Trade, Craft, and Coinage

The Deccan was not isolated—it was buzzing with inland and maritime trade.

🌊 Maritime Trade:

• Important ports:
  • Kalyani (West coast)
  • Gandakasela, Ganjam (East coast)
• Roman coins found in large numbers.
• Ships on coins of Yajna Sri Satakarni highlight overseas commerce.

🪙 Coinage:

• Mostly issued lead coins (Deccan resource).
• Also used potin, copper, bronze.
• No gold coins issued – possibly used Kolar gold as bullion.

🛍️ Rise of Artisan & Merchant Classes:

• Craft and trade flourished.
• Merchants often identified by their towns.
• Gandhikas (perfumers) were common donors.

🧾 Land Grants: A Tool for Power and Religion

The Satavahanas were pioneers of land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks.

• These grants were:
  • Tax-free villages
  • Given for religious legitimacy and political control
• Beneficiaries had the right to collect revenue themselves.

🎯 Purpose:

1. Brahmanas: Reinforced varna dharma and supported state ideology.
2. Buddhist monks: Helped acculturate tribal areas, preaching peace and stability.

📝 Note: Though Brahmanas were respected, more grants went to Buddhist institutions—a sign of political strategy and societal respect.

🕊️ Religion: Brahmanism and Buddhism Side by Side

Religious syncretism was a defining feature of Satavahana rule.

🔱 Brahmanism:

• Satavahana kings were Brahmins by caste.
• Performed Vedic sacrifices: Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, etc.
• Worshipped Vaishnava deities: Krishna, Vasudeva.

☸️ Buddhism:

• Generous patronage to Buddhist monks.
• Built chaityas, viharas.
• Amaravati Stupa was renovated under Vashishtiputra Pulumavi.
• Major centres of Buddhism:
  • Nagarjunakonda
  • Amaravati
  • Nasik, Junar (supported by traders)

🏪 Merchants as Patrons:

• Guilds of artisans and gandhikas (shopkeepers) were prominent donors.
• One of Sanchi’s gateways was funded by ivory workers.

🧠 FYI: The title “Gandhi” is said to be derived from ancient Gandhikas (perfumers/shopkeepers).

🏯 Dhanyakataka (Amaravati): The Mahayana Capital

Where faith, trade, and politics merged.

Key Highlights:

• Became Satavahana capital in coastal Andhra.
• Earlier known for Theravada Mahasanghika Buddhism.
• In the post-Mauryan period, became a major centre of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Notable sites: Amaravati, Dharanikota, Bhattiprolu, Jaggayyapeta, Ghantasala, Vijayawada, etc.
• Supported by both royalty and commoners.
• Trade with Romans increased prosperity.

🎯 Significance: The region demonstrates how Buddhism flourished not just because of royal support, but due to people’s acceptance and contribution.

Language and Literature under the Satavahanas:

• The official language of the Satavahana administration was Prakrit — a language of the common people. It was the language of everyday life, unlike Sanskrit, which remained largely elite and ritualistic during that time.
• All inscriptions — whether royal grants or religious dedications — were composed in Prakrit and written in the Brahmi script. Brahmi, as you may know, is one of the oldest writing systems in India and became the script of choice for most Indian inscriptions of early historical periods.

📝 Literary Contribution:

• One of the jewels of Satavahana literature is ‘Sattasai’ (also called ‘Gatha Saptashati’), a collection of over 700 Prakrit verses.
• Authored by King Hala, this anthology primarily revolves around themes of love, longing, and rural life. Unlike the epic style of Sanskrit poetry, these poems are often short, lyrical, and grounded in real emotional experiences — a reflection of how close Satavahana literature remained to everyday life.

Architectural Contributions:

Now let’s turn to their architectural legacy — particularly in the field of Buddhist art and architecture.

Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda Stupas:

• Both were significant centres of Buddhist learning and architecture during Satavahana rule.

Amaravati Mahachaitya (The Great Stupa):

• Imagine a colossal stupa on the bank of the Krishna River, in the heart of Andhra Pradesh. That is the Amaravati Mahachaitya, one of the largest and most artistically refined Buddhist stupas ever constructed.
• Built in phases between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE, it reached artistic maturity during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, reflecting both early Hinayana and later Mahayana influences.

🧱 Two Major Construction Phases:

1. Early Phase: The basic stupa structure was built, adorned with railing and carved drum slabs. These slabs formed the circular enclosure at the base of the stupa and often featured symbolic motifs (like lotuses or stupas) instead of Buddha’s anthropomorphic image.
2. Later Phase: Starting around the 2nd century CE, there’s a clear shift in style — images of the Buddha were now directly carved on the drum slabs. Artists displayed advanced craftsmanship using varied perspectives: profile, frontal, semi-back, etc., creating depth and realism in their compositions.

Discovery and Looting of Amaravati Stupa: A Colonial Irony

This part is a fascinating and painful reminder of colonial exploitation of Indian heritage.

• In 1796, a local raja discovered the ruins while looking for building material, mistakenly thinking the hill had hidden treasure. He began dismantling it.
• In 1797, British official Colin Mackenzie arrived but could do little to preserve it. Ironically, his survey work caused further damage. After he left, people resumed using stones for construction and lime-making.
• In 1816, Mackenzie revisited, documented the site more thoroughly, and drew a plan of the stupa.
• By the 1850s, the removal of sculptures began in full swing. Panels were taken to Calcutta, Madras, and even London — where they now lie in the British Museum and other institutions.
• 1854: Sir Walter Elliot of Guntur collected several more pieces (later called Elliot Marbles) and recognized Amaravati as one of the greatest Buddhist structures of all time.
• In the 1860s, James Fergusson, a British orientalist, further wrote about the stupa in his influential book Tree and Serpent Worship.

🛑 The Voice of Conscience:

• H.H. Cole, an archaeologist, strongly protested against this loot. He argued that original sculptures should remain in India and museums could instead use plaster-cast replicas.
• Though his views failed to protect Amaravati, they were later accepted for Sanchi, where the stupas remain intact.

Chaityas and Viharas: Rock-Cut Architecture of the Post-Mauryan Period

Post-Mauryan India saw a boom in rock-cut architecture, especially for Buddhist purposes. These rock caves were of two types:

1. Chaityas (Sacred Shrines / Prayer Halls):

• These were the temples or prayer halls of Buddhists — spaces meant for communal worship.
• The word ‘Chaitya’ possibly comes from ‘Chita’, meaning a funeral pyre, linking it to commemorative mounds or stupas.
• A classic example is the Karle Chaitya Hall, carved out of rock, complete with a vaulted roof, side columns, and a stupa at the end. Ajanta caves also have several chaityas, four of which are major ones.

2. Viharas (Monasteries):

• These were residential quarters for Buddhist monks. Unlike chaityas, viharas were more practical and less ornate.
• A typical vihara had a central hall accessed through a verandah, and surrounding cells for monks to live and meditate.
• Three significant viharas at Nasik bear inscriptions of rulers like Nahapana and Gautamiputra Satakarni, dating to the 1st–2nd centuries CE.