Buddhist Councils and the Evolution of Sects
As Buddhism spread rapidly after the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha in 483 BCE, efforts were made by senior monks and royal patrons to preserve the purity of doctrine, address disciplinary disputes, and standardize texts. These gatherings, called Buddhist Councils, were critical in shaping the doctrinal evolution of Buddhism.
🏛️ Overview of the Four Buddhist Councils
| Council | Year (Approx) | Location | Patron King | Presiding Monk | Major Outcomes |
| 1st | 483 BCE | Rajgir | Ajatashatru (Haryanka) | Mahakassapa | Compilation of Sutta Pitaka (by Ananda) and Vinaya Pitaka (by Upali) |
| 2nd | 383 BCE | Vaishali | Kalasoka (Shishunaga) | Sabakami | First schism into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas over Vinaya rules |
| 3rd | 250 BCE | Pataliputra | Ashoka (Maurya) | Moggaliputta Tissa | Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka; spread of Buddhism outside India |
| 4th | 72 CE | Kashmir | Kanishka (Kushana) | Vasumitra (with Ashvaghosha) | Emergence of Hinayana vs Mahayana distinction; compilation of Vibhasha Shastras |
🧬 Significance of Each Council in Doctrinal Evolution
🪷 1st Council (483 BCE) – Foundation of Buddhist Canon
- Held shortly after Buddha’s death.
- Aim: Preserve teachings in their original form.
- Sutta Pitaka: Buddha’s sermons, preserved by Ananda (his close disciple).
- Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic code, compiled by Upali.
⚖️ 2nd Council (383 BCE) – First Schism in Sangha
- Dispute: Some monks at Vaishali wanted to relax rules (e.g., handling money, eating after noon).
- Others (elders or Sthaviras) insisted on strict discipline.
- Result: Split into:
- Sthaviravadins (Conservatives)
- Mahasanghikas (Liberal monks)
- This was the first sectarian division in Buddhism.
🕉️ 3rd Council (250 BCE) – Doctrinal Clarification and Expansion
- Patron: Ashoka (Maurya), after the Kalinga War and his Dhamma mission.
- Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa.
- Objectives:
- Purify the Sangha from heretical sects.
- Compile Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical/analytical teachings).
- Ashoka sent Buddhist emissaries to Sri Lanka (Mahinda), Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.
🔱 4th Council (72 CE) – Birth of Mahayana-Hinayana Divide
- Patron: Kanishka (Kushana emperor, Mahayana patron).
- Location: Kashmir.
- Presided by Vasumitra, with Ashvaghosha playing a key role.
- Result:
- Compilation of Vibhasha Shastras — commentaries on the Tripitakas.
- Formal split into Mahayana and Hinayana schools.
⚔️ First Split: Sthaviravadins vs Mahasanghikas (2nd Council)
| Feature | Sthaviravadins | Mahasanghikas |
| Monastic Discipline | Strict Vinaya (discipline) | Relaxed rules; more inclusive |
| View of Buddha | Human teacher who attained enlightenment | Divine, supernatural being who appeared on Earth |
| Ideal Figure | Arhat – One who achieves liberation | Bodhisattva – One who delays nirvana for others |
| Nature of Arhats | Arhats = Buddha in attainment, only differ in teaching ability | Arhats are imperfect, only Buddha is perfect |
| Buddhas | Focused on one historical Buddha | Believed in multiple Buddhas across space-time |
| Philosophy | Original teachings, conservative approach | Emphasis on transcendentalism and compassion |
🔹 The Mahasanghikas’ view of the divine Buddha and exalted Bodhisattva path laid the foundation of Mahayana Buddhism.
🔹 Meanwhile, the Sthaviravadin tradition evolved into Theravada Buddhism, dominant in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
🌼 Mahayana Buddhism: The Great Vehicle of Compassion
🕉️ Background
In early Buddhism (Theravada or “Hinayana”), the emphasis was on:
- Self-effort (individual journey to nirvana),
- Buddha as a historical teacher, and
- Salvation through arhatship (personal liberation).
But by 1st century BCE–1st century CE, a paradigm shift occurred in Buddhist philosophy:
- New ideals emerged: compassion, universality, and cosmic roles of Buddhas.
- This marked the birth of Mahayana Buddhism — literally meaning “Great Vehicle” — a path believed to carry more beings to enlightenment.
📍 Birth and Growth of Mahayana
| Phase | Details |
| Origin | Emerged around 1st century BCE, likely in the Andhra region. |
| Doctrinal Shift | Opposition from orthodox monks slowed early progress. |
| Popularisation | Major boost under Nagarjuna — a renowned philosopher and founder of the Madhyamika school. |
| Formal Recognition | At the 4th Buddhist Council (72 CE), under King Kanishka, Mahayana was formalised as a major sect. |
| Kanishka’s Role | Considered the patron and promoter of Mahayana Buddhism. |
🔑 Key Features of Mahayana Buddhism
1. Bodhisattva Ideal
- Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who delay their own nirvana out of compassion to help others.
- Opposed to the arhat ideal (personal salvation).
- Bodhisattva path became central to Mahayana — urging every aspirant to help all beings, not just self.
❝ If Theravada teaches how to escape the burning house, Mahayana urges you to run back inside to help others. ❞
2. Image Worship
- Anthropomorphic depictions of Buddha and Bodhisattvas became common.
- Earlier Buddhism used symbols (wheel, tree, footprints), but Mahayana worshipped Buddha in idol form.
- This marked the beginning of Buddhist devotional practices.
3. Conceptual Shift: Buddha as Divine
- In Mahayana, Buddha is no longer just a man, but a cosmic, divine being.
- Belief in multiple Buddhas (not just Gautama) across space and time.
- Buddha is eternal, omnipresent, and ever-compassionate — a universal saviour.
🧘♂️ Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism
| Name | Symbolism / Role |
| Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani) | Embodiment of compassion |
| Vajrapani | Power and energy |
| Manjushri | Wisdom and intellect |
| Maitreya | Future Buddha, yet to arrive |
| Samantabhadra | Practice and meditation |
| Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin | Purifier of obstacles |
| Akashagarbha | Element of space |
| Kshitigarbha | Protector of children and savior of hell-beings; vows not to attain Buddhahood until all hells are emptied |
🆚 Mahayana vs Hinayana (Theravada)
| Feature | Mahayana | Hinayana / Theravada |
| Meaning | Great Vehicle | Lesser Vehicle (term used by Mahayana) |
| Salvation Ideal | Bodhisattva – collective salvation | Arhat – individual salvation |
| View of Buddha | Divine, eternal, cosmic being | Human teacher who attained nirvana |
| Use of Idols | Image worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas | Symbolic representation only (originally) |
| Language of Texts | Sanskrit | Pali |
| Spread | China, Korea, Japan, Tibet | Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia |
| Path Emphasised | Devotion + Compassion + Wisdom | Discipline + Meditation + Insight |
🔸 Hinayana is considered a pejorative term, and today its surviving form is referred to respectfully as Theravada (“Teachings of the Elders”).
🔁 Mahayana’s Inclusiveness
- Open to common people, not just monks.
- Embraced faith and compassion as much as discipline.
- Believed liberation is possible for all, not just the elite ascetics.
- Introduced new literature, commentaries, and philosophies (e.g., Madhyamika, Yogachara).
📍 Mahayana in Art and Culture
- Rise of Buddha icons in Gandhara and Mathura schools of art.
- Flourishing of stupa worship, mural paintings (Ajanta), and large-scale Buddhist architecture.
- Influence on Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) and Zen Buddhism in East Asia.
🧭 Comparative Study: Hinayana vs Mahayana Buddhism
As Buddhism evolved, it split into two major ideological schools:
- Hinayana (literally “Lesser Vehicle”, a term used pejoratively by Mahayanists)
- Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”)
This division reflected a philosophical and devotional shift in how people understood Buddha, salvation, and practice.
We have already studied the basic difference between the two earlier, let’s look at it in a more elaborate fashion now:
📚 Doctrinal Differences
| Feature | Hinayana (Theravada) | Mahayana |
| Nature of Buddha | A mortal teacher, enlightened through self-effort. | Deified Buddha — a cosmic, eternal being worthy of worship. |
| Ideal Figure | Arhat – seeker of personal nirvana, detached from the world. | Bodhisattva – postpones nirvana to help others attain liberation. |
| Goal of Practice | Individual liberation (moksha) – only monks/nuns could attain it. | Universal salvation – open to all, even laypeople. |
| Path to Nirvana | Through strict discipline, meditation, morality. | Through compassion, devotion, and wisdom (along with meditation). |
| View on World | World is full of suffering – escape is the goal. | World is suffering, but can be transformed through compassion. |
| Attitude to Rituals | Simple life, no rituals. | Encourages rituals, ceremonies, and devotional acts. |
🕉️ Worship and Representation
| Feature | Hinayana | Mahayana |
| Idol Worship | Did not believe in idol worship. Represented Buddha symbolically (e.g., wheel, footprint, tree). | Believed in idol/image worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. |
| Art Forms | Aniconic phase – symbols only. | Iconic phase – full Buddha and Bodhisattva statues (e.g., Mathura, Gandhara schools). |
📖 Literature and Language
| Feature | Hinayana | Mahayana |
| Language of Canon | Pali | Sanskrit |
| Sacred Texts | Tripitaka – Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma Pitaka | Mahayana Sutras (e.g., Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra), plus many inherited from Tripitaka. |
| Style | Rational, analytical, practical | Philosophical, poetic, and sometimes mystical |
🗺️ Geographical Spread
| Feature | Hinayana / Theravada | Mahayana |
| Modern Form | Survives today as Theravada | Mainstream Mahayana with many sub-schools |
| Regions Practised | Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam | China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim |
| Royal Patronage | Ashoka (3rd century BCE) | Kanishka (1st century CE) |
🔁 Historical Evolution
| Feature | Hinayana | Mahayana |
| Formation | Older school; derived from early Buddhist councils | Emerged later (~1st century BCE–CE) due to doctrinal reform and philosophical shift |
| Sub-sects | E.g., Theravada, Sthaviravada | E.g., Madhyamika, Yogachara, evolved further into Vajrayana |
Important Buddhist Sanskrit Texts: A Conceptual Overview
So far, we studied Pali literature — Tripitaka, Jataka tales, Dhammapada etc., which formed the core of early Theravada or Hinayana tradition. But as Buddhism evolved — especially with the rise of Mahayana — Sanskrit replaced Pali as the medium in many regions.
Let’s now understand some of the most important Buddhist Sanskrit texts and their authors.
1. Ashvaghosha (1st–2nd Century CE)
A celebrated poet, dramatist, and philosopher — he was in the court of Kanishka (Kushan ruler and great patron of Mahayana Buddhism). Often compared with Kalidasa for his literary brilliance.
| Text | Theme |
| Buddhacharita | A Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem) on the life of the Buddha — from birth to enlightenment. |
| Saundarananda | Poetic account of Nanda, Buddha’s half-brother, and his conversion to Buddhism. Shows conflict between desire and renunciation. |
| Mahalankara | A Mahayana philosophical treatise, also called the “Book of Glory.” |
| Sariputraprakarana | A drama highlighting the life of Sariputta and Maudgalayana, Buddha’s closest disciples. |
| Vajrasuchi | A fierce critique of the varna system — possibly one of the earliest caste-rejecting texts in Sanskrit. |
2. Vasumitra
Presided over the Fourth Buddhist Council (Kashmir under Kanishka, 1st century CE).
- Vibhasha Shastras: Detailed commentaries on the Tripitaka. Gave clarity to many doctrinal issues — essential for Mahayana thinkers.
3. Nagarjuna
The towering intellectual of Mahayana Buddhism. Lived during 2nd century CE. Founder of the Madhyamika school, known for deep philosophical analysis.
| Text | Theme |
| Mulamadhyamakakarika | Core text of the Madhyamika (Middle Path) school — discussed “śunyata” (emptiness), a central concept in Mahayana. |
| Prajnaparamita Karika | Talks about “Perfection of Wisdom” (prajna) — key Mahayana virtue, greater than morality or meditation. |
4. Buddhaghosha
Although a Theravada scholar from Sri Lanka, he wrote in Pali and Sanskrit.
| Text | Theme |
| Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) | A comprehensive summary of Buddhist philosophy and practice — systematic guide to meditation and ethics. |
| Sumangalavilasini | Commentary on the Digha Nikaya |
| Atthakathā (general term) | A set of commentaries on the Pali Canon texts, explaining doctrines in detail. |