Persian and Macedonian Invasions

The Achaemenid Empire – Who Were They?

Let’s begin from the West—ancient Iran, historically known as Persia. Around the 6th century BCE, a powerful empire arose here under the Achaemenid dynasty—and this would become one of the largest and first truly world empires of antiquity.

🌍 Timeframe:

• The Achaemenid Empire lasted from 559 BCE to 330 BCE.

👑 Founding Father – Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II):

• He began as a local tribal king and went on to conquer vast territories, from modern-day Iran to Mesopotamia and parts of Central Asia.
• He is famous not just for conquests, but also for his tolerance.
  • He allowed local populations to practice their religions, keep their customs, and maintain their languages.
  • In 539 BCE, after conquering Babylon, he issued decrees of freedom and equality, now inscribed on the Cyrus Cylinder—often referred to as the first charter of human rights in the world.

📜 Key Rulers of the Achaemenid Empire:

1. Cyrus II (559–530 BCE) – Founder of the empire.
2. Darius I (522–486 BCE) – Expanded and consolidated the empire; empire’s golden age.
3. Xerxes I (486–465 BCE) – Continued expansion, recruited Indians into his army for war against the Greeks.
4. Darius III (336–330 BCE) – The last ruler; defeated by Alexander the Great.

Darius I – The Organizer King

Let’s pause on Darius I, because his contributions were not just territorial—but administrative and infrastructural.

🛣️ The Royal Road:

• Darius built a massive 2,500-km-long road from Susa (in Persia) to Sardis (in modern Turkey)—called the Royal Road.
• This enabled fast communication, comparable to how we use highways and postal services today.

💰 Currency System:

• Introduced standardised gold and silver coins—facilitating trade across the vast empire.

🗣️ Language Reform:

• Though a Persian himself, he made Aramaic the official language—as it was the lingua franca of that time.

Persian Invasion of India – Historical Context

Now let’s shift focus to India, particularly north-western India during the 6th century BCE.

🔍 What was happening in India at this time?

• In north-east India, smaller mahajanapadas and republics were gradually being absorbed into larger kingdoms like Magadha.
• But in the north-west, the picture was different. There was no powerful central authority.
  • Principalities like the Kambojas, Gandharas, and Madras were disunited and often in conflict.

🛤️ Strategic Location:

• North-west India was rich, fertile, and most importantly, easily accessible through the Hindukush passes (like the Khyber Pass).
• This region became vulnerable to external invasions—Persia saw an opportunity.

Actual Invasion – What Did They Conquer?

⚔️ Cyrus the Great:

• The first to cross into India.
• Conquered Gandhara and Kamboja—parts of modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.

⚔️ Darius I (516 BCE):

• Penetrated further and annexed:
  • Sindh
  • Parts of Punjab, but only west of the Indus River.
• He incorporated these into his empire as satrapies (Persian provinces).

🏛️ Satrapies: Persian Provincial System in India

A satrapy = a province
A satrap = its governor

Two satrapies were created in Indian territory under Darius:

1. Seventh Satrapy (Gadara):
   • Included Gandhara and Kamboja
2. Twentieth Satrapy (Hindush):
   • Included Sindh and parts of Punjab (west of Indus)
   • This was the richest and most populous part of the empire, contributing 360 talents of gold annually—almost one-third of Iran’s revenue from Asia!

👥 Xerxes I and Indian Soldiers

• Xerxes, the son of Darius, recruited Indians into his massive army for his wars against the Greeks.
• This shows that India was integrated into the Achaemenid military and administrative systems.

📅 How Long Did Persia Rule Indian Territory?

• From the time of Cyrus (c. 530 BCE) till the invasion of Alexander (c. 330 BCE)—roughly 200 years of Indo-Persian contact.

🔍 Impact of the Persian Invasion

Let’s now examine the historical significance—Why should a UPSC aspirant study this episode deeply?

1. Trade & Economic Contact:

• This invasion opened up long-lasting trade routes between India and Iran, boosting commerce.

2. Script Influence – Kharoshthi:

• Persian Aramaic influenced the development of the Kharoshthi script, which:
  • Was written right to left
  • Used in Ashokan inscriptions in north-west India

3. Architectural Impact:

• Elements of Achaemenid art seeped into Mauryan architecture:
  • Bell-shaped capitals on Ashokan pillars were inspired by Persian prototypes.
  • Some words in Ashoka’s edict inscriptions also show Persian influence.
    • For example:
      • Persian term “dipi” corresponds to “lipi” in Indian context (meaning writing or script).

4. Greek Awareness & Alexander’s Invasion:

• The Greeks learned about India’s wealth and rich culture from the Persians.
• This motivated Alexander the Great to undertake his historic campaign towards India.

So, The Persian invasion was not just a tale of territorial conquest—it was a civilisational contact. It brought India into the orbit of the larger ancient world, laying foundations for future cross-cultural exchanges—in language, administration, art, and military systems.

This episode also marks the beginning of foreign invasions into India’s north-west, a pattern that would repeat often in the centuries to come—from Alexander to the Huns, Turks, and later, the Mughals.

Understanding this phase helps us see the geopolitical vulnerabilities of ancient India, and how external influences helped shape some features of Indian polity, culture, and economy.

🛡️ Macedonian Invasion of India: Alexander the Great (327–325 BCE)

🧭 Who Was Alexander the Great?

Let us begin with a young man who dreamt of conquering the world—Alexander, the son of Philip II of Macedon, a small kingdom in northern Greece.

• Born in 356 BCE, Alexander became king in 336 BCE, at the age of just 20.
• Within two years, he united all of Greece, a region divided into multiple city-states like Athens and Sparta.
• But Alexander’s ambition was not limited to ruling Greece—he wanted world supremacy.

⚔️ Greeks vs. Iranians: A Battle for Supremacy

• By the 4th century BCE, two great civilizations—Greece and Iran (Persia)—were engaged in a power struggle.
• In the Battle of Arbela (330 BCE), Alexander defeated Darius III, the last ruler of the Achaemenid Empire (same Persian empire that earlier invaded India).
• With Persia under his belt, Alexander’s eyes turned eastward—to India.

🔎 Why Did Alexander Invade India?

There were two main reasons:

1. Temptation of Wealth
   • Greek writers like Herodotus described India as a land of immense wealth—gold, spices, elephants.
   • This tempted Alexander, just as Persia once had been tempted.
2. Geographical Curiosity
   • Alexander had a keen interest in geographical inquiry and natural history.
   • He believed that India marked the eastern edge of the known world—and beyond it lay the ocean.
   • To conquer India, therefore, meant conquering the edge of the world.

📝 Note:
Interestingly, Alexander’s invasion is not recorded in Indian sources. Our knowledge comes entirely from Greek historians.
They refer to a king named “Sandrokottas”, now widely accepted as Chandragupta Maurya—a key reference point in ancient Indian chronology.

🗺️ Alexander’s Campaign in India

Let’s now trace his march into India:

• In 327 BCE, Alexander crossed the Hindukush mountains into Indian territory.
• He spent ten months fighting fierce hill tribes before crossing the Indus River in February 326 BCE.

🏰 Political Situation in North-West India

Alexander arrived to find political fragmentation in north-west India:

• The region was divided into small monarchies and tribal republics.
• Two notable rulers:
  1. Ambhi – the ruler of Taxila (Takshashila)
  2. Porus (Puru) – ruler of the region between Jhelum and Chenab

🤝 Ambhi’s Surrender:

• Ambhi did not resist Alexander. He welcomed him, provided supplies, soldiers, and joined his campaign.

⚔️ Porus’s Resistance:

• Porus refused to surrender.
• Alexander marched from Taxila to the river Hydaspes (modern Jhelum).
• A fierce battle—the Battle of Hydaspes—ensued.

🏆 Battle of Hydaspes (326 BCE)

• Though Alexander won, he was deeply impressed by Porus’s courage and dignity.
• When asked how he wished to be treated, Porus famously replied:
  👉 “Like a King.”
• Alexander, moved by this, returned his kingdom and made Porus an ally.

🛡️ Other Resistance Movements

Not all submitted like Ambhi or became allies like Porus.

• Hill tribes such as:
  • Astakenoi
  • Ashvakayanas of Massaga
• Fiercely resisted Alexander.

👑 The Ashvakayanas were led by Queen Cleophis, who fought valiantly—highlighting the role of women warriors in Indian history.

🚫 Why Did Alexander Stop at the Beas?

Alexander then advanced as far as the Beas River

• Vedic name: Vipasha
• Greek name: Hyphasis

But here, something unexpected happened—his own army refused to march further.

❌ Reasons for the Mutiny:

1. Exhaustion after 10 years of continuous campaigning
2. Unfamiliar tropical climate
3. Fear of the mighty Nanda Empire, known to have:
   • Large infantry
   • War elephants
   • Huge resources

At that time, Dhana Nanda, the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, was ruling Magadha.

🔚 Alexander had to turn back—not because of defeat by enemies, but because of his own soldiers.

🏁 Return and Legacy

• Alexander began his return in 325 BCE.
• He:
  • Appointed Greek governors in Indian territories (from Indus to Beas).
  • Restored friendly local rulers who had submitted.
• In 323 BCE, at Babylon, Alexander fell ill and died at just 32 years of age.

🏛️ Aftermath: What Happened to Alexander’s Indian Territories?

• After his death, his generals divided the empire among themselves.
• Seleucus Nicator claimed the region west of the Indus, founding the Seleucid Empire.
• However, Alexander’s control over India was short-lived.
• Soon, Chandragupta Maurya would rise, defeating the Nandas, and eventually defeating Seleucus as well.

📜 Significance of Alexander’s Invasion

Now, let’s evaluate the impact of this historic episode:

1. Political Impact:

• By defeating many small independent kingdoms, Alexander’s invasion helped pave the way for the Mauryan unification of northern India.

2. Cultural Exchange:

• Established direct contact between India and Greece in:
  • Art
  • Architecture
  • Language
  • Philosophy

3. Trade Routes:

• Opened four new routes—both land and sea.
• Boosted trade between India and West Asia.

4. Historical Documentation:

• Alexander’s historians documented:
  • Indian geography
  • Sati system
  • Social conditions
  • Flourishing crafts like carpentry, chariot- and boat-making
  • Sale of girls and livestock, e.g., fine breeds of oxen

These sources help us construct the chronology of ancient Indian history.

🪓 Legacy of Indian Iron & Wootz Steel

Let us end on a fascinating note—the technology and craftsmanship of ancient India, especially in metallurgy.

🛡️ Indian Iron:

• In the 5th century BCE, Herodotus noted that Indian arrows had iron tips—a clear indicator of India’s early iron technology.
• By the Gupta period, India produced:
  • The famous Iron Pillar of Delhi, known for:
    • Its resistance to corrosion
    • Its engineering excellence

⚔️ Wootz Steel:

• A highly advanced form of steel, known for:
  • Sharpness
  • Durability

✨ Highlights:

• According to historian Will Durant, Porus gifted Alexander 30 pounds of steel, not gold.
• Indian swords made of wootz steel were so famous that:
  • Francis Buchanan recorded its production in Mysore (1800)
  • Michael Faraday, the father of electromagnetism, studied it from 1818 to 1822

This shows that India was not just a land of spirituality—but also of scientific achievement and technological excellence.

Conclusion

Alexander’s invasion, though militarily brief, had long-lasting consequences:

• It prepared the ground for the Mauryan Empire
• Opened the door for Indo-Greek interaction
• Preserved invaluable geographical and cultural data through Greek writings

In the larger canvas of ancient Indian history, Alexander’s campaign was like a spark—brief but illuminating—shedding light on the political weaknesses, cultural richness, and military potential of India at the time.