Tripartite Struggle: A Tug-of-War for Kanauj

To understand the Tripartite Struggle, we first need to grasp why Kanauj was so important.

By the 7th century CE, Kanauj had transformed into one of North India’s most significant political centers. This rise was largely due to Harshavardhana, the great Pushyabhuti emperor, who shifted his capital from Thanesar to Kanauj, recognizing its strategic, economic, and geographical importance.

But as often happens in history, after a powerful ruler dies, a power vacuum follows. After Harsha’s death, there was no strong successor to hold the region together. Kanauj thus became a symbolic throne that every major power wanted to occupy.

🔶 Rise of Regional Powers: Prelude to the Conflict

Almost a century after Harsha’s death, a new ruler, Yashovarman (reigned c. 725–752 CE), rose in Kanauj and established the Varman Dynasty. While Yashovarman was a capable ruler, his successors were weak. The dynasty soon declined.

Eventually, Vajrayudha defeated the last Varman ruler Bhoja, and established the Ayudha Dynasty in the late 8th century.

So far, we’ve seen two transitions:

• From Pushyabhutis to Varmans
• From Varmans to Ayudhas

But now comes the real political drama — a three-way conflict that became one of the defining power struggles of early medieval India.

🔶 The Three Powers: East, West, and South

From this point onwards, Kanauj became a battlefield for supremacy among three major regional powers:

Direction	Dynasty	Capital/Region
East	Palas	Bengal
West	Gurjara-Pratiharas	Malwa (later Kanauj)
South	Rashtrakutas	Manyakheta (Karnataka)

All three dynasties had imperial ambitions. To dominate the Indian subcontinent politically and symbolically, controlling Kanauj was crucial.

👉 This three-way conflict is famously known as the Tripartite Struggle (or Trikoniya Sangharsh).

It was not a one-time battle — it spanned decades and saw multiple invasions, alliances, and betrayals. Each of the three dynasties occupied Kanauj at different times, but none could retain permanent control. This made Kanauj a politically unstable, yet symbolically prized city.

🔶 Rashtrakutas

Among the three contenders, the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan were the most powerful militarily and also had the longest-lasting empire. Their base in the south allowed them to influence both the northern and southern regions of India, acting as a bridge between two cultural zones.

They often played the role of an interventionist empire, influencing the power dynamics in the north even though Kanauj was far from their capital.

👑 Ayudha Dynasty of Kanauj: The Forgotten Intermediaries

Now let’s focus specifically on the Ayudha Dynasty, a short-lived but important player in the Kanauj narrative.

🔶 Founding and Decline

• The dynasty was founded by Vajrayudha, who ruled in the late 8th century.
• His son, Indrayudha, came to power in 783 CE, but his reign didn’t last long.

He was soon defeated by:

• Dhruva Dharavarsha (a powerful Rashtrakuta king), and
• Dharmapala (the Pala king of Bengal).

Here’s where the politics becomes interesting.

Instead of directly annexing Kanauj, Dharmapala followed a more diplomatic approach:

He installed Chakrayudha, the brother of defeated king Indrayudha, as a vassal ruler in Kanauj.

This way, Kanauj became a client state under Pala suzerainty — a clever move to gain influence without direct annexation.

🔶 The Final Blow: Chaos and Invasion

However, the situation didn’t remain stable for long.

• Govinda III, another mighty Rashtrakuta ruler, invaded north India.
• He defeated both:
  • Chakrayudha (the puppet king)
  • Dharmapala (his Pala overlord)

This chaotic situation created the perfect opportunity for the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler, Nagabhata II, who:

• Invaded Kanauj,
• Defeated Chakrayudha,
• And made Kanauj his capital.

👉 With this, the Ayudha dynasty came to an end, and the Gurjara-Pratiharas emerged as dominant rulers of Kanauj.

The Palas of Bengal (8th to 12th Century CE): The Buddhist Patrons of Eastern India

🔷 Political Background

Let’s rewind to the early 7th century CE, when a king named Shashanka ruled Bengal. He was the first prominent ruler of Bengal, and belonged to the Gauda kingdom, covering parts of West Bengal, Bangladesh, and Bihar.

But after his death, chaos returned. Bengal became a battlefield of petty chieftains, and there was no central authority. The region was in political disarray, much like what we saw after Harsha’s death in the north.

🔷 Rise of the Palas: Gopala’s Election (750 CE)

In this time of instability, something remarkable happened — a rare democratic moment in Indian history:

Around 750 CE, local chieftains of Bengal came together and elected a capable Kshatriya chief named Gopala as their ruler.

This election wasn’t based on birth or royal lineage — Gopala didn’t belong to any existing royal family, yet he rose to power purely because of his ability and leadership. This tells us that legitimacy through competence was possible in Indian polity, even in the medieval period.

🔷 Expansion Under Gopala

• Gopala’s original base was in Vanga (East Bengal).
• He soon unified Bengal under his control and extended his rule to Magadha (modern Bihar).
• With this, he laid the foundation of what became known as the Pala Empire.

👑 Key Rulers of the Pala Dynasty

Let’s now look at the main rulers, starting from Gopala I and moving to his successors

🔶 Dharmapala (770–810 CE): The Imperial Builder

Dharmapala, son of Gopala, turned the regional Pala kingdom into a powerful empire and became a central figure in the Tripartite Struggle with:

• Gurjara-Pratiharas (West)
• Rashtrakutas (South)

⚔️ Political Campaigns:

• The Pratihara ruler attacked Gaud (Bengal), but was defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva, who then returned to the Deccan.
• This cleared the path for Dharmapala to occupy Kanauj — the symbolic seat of imperial power in north India.
• He held a grand darbar (imperial court) at Kanauj, where rulers from Punjab, Rajputana, Malwa, Berar accepted his suzerainty.

💡 Suzerainty = overlordship without direct control.

However, his control was short-lived. The Pratiharas revived under Nagabhata II, and Dharmapala was defeated near Mongyr.

Still, Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh remained contested zones, while Bengal and most of Bihar stayed under firm Pala control.

🕉️ Patron of Buddhism:

• Founded Vikramashila Mahavihara (Bhagalpur, Bihar) — which later became a major Buddhist university, second only to Nalanda.
• Revived Nalanda University, continuing its legacy as the foremost center of Buddhist learning.

🔶 Devapala (810–850 CE): The Empire Expands

• Devapala, son of Dharmapala, extended the empire’s boundaries to:
  • Assam (Pragjyotishpur)
  • Parts of Orissa
  • Even Nepal came under Pala influence.

⚔️ Military Success:

• Formed alliances against the Rashtrakutas and defeated Amoghavarsha, their king.

🌏 International Relations:

• Balaputradeva, king of the Sailendra dynasty in Suvarnadipa (Sumatra), sent a request to build a Buddhist monastery at Nalanda.
• Devapala granted five villages for its upkeep — showing Bengal’s deep religious and cultural ties with Southeast Asia.

🔶 Madanapala (1130–1150 CE): The Last Pala

• By the late 9th century, the Pala Empire started weakening due to succession struggles and external threats.
• Yet, the dynasty survived for nearly three more centuries in a reduced form.
• Eventually, Madanapala, the last Pala ruler, was defeated by Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty around 1150 CE, marking the end of Pala rule.

Later, the Senas themselves were overthrown by the Muslim armies of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century.

💰 Economy and Cultural Brilliance Under the Palas

(A) Trade and Prosperity

• Tamralipti port in Bengal served as a major hub for trade with Southeast Asia.
• This led to the influx of gold and silver into Bengal.
• Bengal, under the Palas, became an economic and maritime power.

(B) Cultural and Buddhist Diplomacy

🌏 Southeast Asia:

• The Sailendra kings (Buddhists of Java, Sumatra, Malaya) frequently interacted with the Pala court.
• Their embassies show that Bengal was seen as a center of Buddhist wisdom.

🕉️ Tibet and Vajrayana Buddhism:

• Under the Palas, a new form of tantric Buddhism called Vajrayana spread to Tibet.
• Scholars like Santarakshita and Atisha Dipankara were invited to Tibet to promote this path.
• Tibetan monks also flocked to Nalanda and Vikramashila, cementing Bengal’s role as a Buddhist intellectual capital.

(C) Foreign Accounts

📜 Arab Account:

• Sulaiman, a 9th-century Arab merchant, wrote about the Pala kingdom (which he called Ruhma).
• He mentioned:
  • The Palas’ large army (claimed 50,000 elephants!),
  • And 10,000+ people employed just for washing clothes!
  • These exaggerated numbers reflect the perceived grandeur of the Palas abroad.

📜 Tibetan Chronicles:

• Emphasize the Pala rulers’ generosity toward Buddhist institutions.
• Mention 200 villages granted for Nalanda and numerous viharas built under their rule.

📘 Summary Table of Key Rulers

Ruler	Reign	Key Highlights
Gopala I	c. 750 CE	Elected by chieftains; founder of Pala dynasty
Dharmapala	770–810 CE	Participated in Tripartite Struggle; built Vikramashila, revived Nalanda
Devapala	810–850 CE	Empire’s peak; defeated Amoghavarsha; supported Sumatra’s Buddhist monastery
Madanapala	1130–1150 CE	Last ruler; defeated by Sena dynasty

⚔️ The Gurjara-Pratiharas (730–1036 CE): Guardians of the North

🔷 Origins and Rise to Power

The Gurjara-Pratiharas are often simply called Pratiharas, but their regional root — Gurjara — is significant. Most scholars associate them with south-western Rajasthan, possibly emerging from the Gurjara region (modern Gujarat–Rajasthan border).

Their early history suggests that they:

• Possibly began as local officials,
• Rose to prominence by carving out principalities in central and eastern Rajasthan, and
• Became powerful largely due to their military resistance against Arab invasions from Sindh.

📍 Arab Invasions and Resistance

• After the Arab conquest of Sindh (712 CE), they tried to expand eastwards into Rajasthan.
• However, Chalukyas of Gujarat decisively defeated them in 738 CE, ending the immediate Arab threat.
• Despite this, the Pratiharas gained fame as defenders of Indian territory against foreign invaders.

🔷 Early Dynasty and Rashtrakuta Rivalry

The imperial phase of the Pratiharas began with Nagabhata I (730–760 CE), who ruled from Ujjain.

He:

• Extended control over present-day Rajasthan and Gujarat,
• But soon clashed with the Rashtrakutas, who were rising in the Deccan.

The Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Govinda III repeatedly defeated the Pratiharas in 790 and 806–07, especially in the region of Malwa and Gujarat. These areas were rich in resources and trade — and thus, hotly contested.

🔷 Tripartite Struggle: Kanauj in the Crosshairs

Under Nagabhata II (795–833 CE):

• The Pratiharas defeated both:
  • Chakrayudha, the Ayudha ruler of Kanauj,
  • And Dharmapala, the powerful Pala king of Bengal.
• Nagabhata occupied Kanauj, a politically symbolic victory.

But again, Rashtrakuta king Govinda III retaliated, defeated Nagabhata, and took Malwa and Gujarat.

This became the core pattern of the Tripartite Struggle — Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas, constantly vying for Kanauj and its surrounding regions.

🔷 Mihir Bhoja (836–882 CE): The Zenith of Power

Mihir Bhoja is considered the greatest ruler of the Pratihara dynasty — the real builder of the empire.

He:

• Was a devotee of Vishnu, took the title ‘Adivaraha’, and inscribed it on coins.
• Recovered and retained Kanauj, making it the imperial capital for nearly a century.
• Extended control towards the east, but was initially checked by Devapala, the Pala ruler.
• Later, with Devapala’s decline, Bhoja expanded his influence into eastern India, central India, and parts of the Deccan.

🏇 Military Strength and Trade:

• Arab accounts note that the Pratiharas had the best cavalry in India.
• India imported high-quality horses from Central Asia and Arabia, critical for strong cavalry-based warfare.
• Bhoja’s empire stretched up to the Sutlej River in the northwest.

🔷 Decline of the Pratiharas

After Bhoja:

• Successors like Mahendrapala and Mahipala tried to retain control but faced increasing pressure.
• In 915–918 CE, Rashtrakuta king Indra III attacked and devastated Kanauj.
• This caused:
  • The loss of Gujarat — a critical trade hub and outlet to West Asia,
  • Decline in revenues and military strength.

Later, in 963 CE, Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III also invaded, accelerating the disintegration of the Pratihara empire.

By the 11th century, the once-mighty empire had fragmented into regional kingdoms, paving the way for Rajput states and later, Turkish invasions.

🔷 Cultural Contributions

Despite being politically aggressive, the Pratiharas were:

• Great patrons of Sanskrit literature and learning.
• The court of Mahipala, Bhoja’s grandson, hosted Rajashekhar — a renowned Sanskrit poet and dramatist.

Even during this period of military conflict, intellectual life flourished.

🔷 Arab Accounts: Al-Masudi on the Pratiharas

Al-Masudi, an Arab traveller from Baghdad, visited India (Gujarat) in 915–916 CE.

He wrote about:

• The Gurjara-Pratihara Empire, which he called “al-Juzr”.
• The immense size of the empire — 2,000 km in both length and breadth!
• A massive army with:
  • Four divisions,
  • Each having 7–9 lakh troops (possibly exaggerated),
  • 2000 trained war elephants,
  • And the best cavalry among all Indian kings.

He also noted that:

One division fought against Multan and Muslim rulers, another against Rashtrakutas, and another against Palas — reflecting the constant warfare on all fronts.

🗂️ Summary Table: Key Pratihara Rulers

Ruler	Period	Contribution
Nagabhata I	730–760 CE	Founder of imperial Pratihara dynasty
Nagabhata II	795–833 CE	Defeated Pala king Dharmapala, captured Kanauj
Mihir Bhoja	836–882 CE	Greatest ruler, expanded empire, patron of Vaishnavism
Mahipala	Late 9th c.	Patron of poet Rajashekhar

⚔️ Rashtrakutas (Preview)

• While the Palas and Pratiharas dominated north India, the Rashtrakutas ruled the Deccan.
• Their capital was at Manyakheta (modern Karnataka).
• They participated actively in the Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj, even though they were southern rulers.
• Though they couldn’t hold north Indian territory for long, they gained immense wealth and prestige through repeated campaigns.

Additionally:

• They fought with Eastern Chalukyas (Vengi), Pallavas (Kanchi), and Pandyas (Madurai) — which we’ll discuss in detail in the “South Indian Kingdoms” chapter.